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James Marshall het nie na Kalifornië gekom om goud te vind nie. Maar toe merk hy 'n glinsterende rots in die vuilgoed terwyl hy 'n nuwe meule vir die plaaslike grondeienaar John Sutter bou. Dit was 1848, en Marshall se lot - en dié van Kalifornië - het net vir ewig verander.
Die Gold Rush wat daarop gevolg het, het ook die lewens van die inheemse Amerikaners in Kalifornië verander. Binne jare sou hulle byna uitgewis word weens die massiewe immigrasie - en honger na rykdom - wat die Gold Rush geïnspireer het.
Aangevuur deur hebsug en vrees, verklaar die Anglo -setlaars wat na Kalifornië gestroom het, oorlog teen die inheemse Kaliforniërs wat voor hulle gekom het. Maar veertig-en-negentig was nie die eerste wit mense wat inheemse Amerikaners in Kalifornië onderdruk of selfs verslaaf het nie. Die einste land waarop Marshall die goud raakgesien het, was deel van 'n uitgestrekte ryk wat op die slawe -arbeid van inheemse mense gebou is.
Sonder inheemse Amerikaners sou John Sutter - eienaar van die meule waar goud ontdek is en die invloedrykste grondeienaars in die gebied - nooit so magtig geword het nie. Sutter, 'n slim sakeman, het honderde inheemse Amerikaners tot slawe gemaak en dit gebruik as 'n gratis bron van arbeid en 'n tydelike burgermag waarmee hy sy gebied verdedig het. Hy het ook die weg gebaan vir hul volksmoord.
Voordat John Sutter 'n landbaron geword het, was hy Johann Suter, 'n skuldige winkeleienaar in Switserland. Die 31-jarige het sy geboorteland-en sy vrou en vyf kinders-agtergelaat in plaas van tronkstraf vir sy skuld.
Kalifornië was destyds 'n Mexikaanse provinsie, en Sutter was in die versoeking gebring deur sy groot natuurlike hulpbronne en die skynbaar yl bevolking. Saam met 'n groep inheemse Amerikaners wat hy saam met voorsienings en gereedskap 'verwerf' het, het hy die provinsiale goewerneur oortuig om hom in 1841 50 000 hektaar toe te staan vir 'n nedersettings- en handelsentrum wat hy 'Nueva Helvetia' of New Switzerland genoem het.
Sutter het Nueva Helvetia se regter en militêre bevelvoerder geword, met die gesag om te voorkom wat hy beskryf as "die rooftogte begaan deur avonturiers uit die Verenigde State" en "die inval van woeste Indiërs". Om die grond te bekom, het hy hom tot Katolisisme bekeer en 'n Mexikaanse burger geword, en binne 'n paar jaar het hy sy grondbesit meer as verdubbel.
Die land wat deur Sutter beheer is, is moontlik dun gesetel vir Anglo -setlaars, maar dit was die tuiste van inheemse Amerikaners wat “hul tuislande nou die eiendom van buitestaanders gevind het wat hulle as potensiële arbeiders beskou het”, skryf historikus Lisa Emmerich. Die inheemse mense het Sutter 'n bedreiging en 'n geleentheid gebied.
Sutter het aanvanklik 'n vriendskaplike verhouding met die plaaslike Nisenan -mense gesmee en hulle in 'n burgermag verander, met uniforms en wapens toegerus en hulle opgelei om sy land te verdedig.
Alhoewel Sutter se grondtoelaag vereis het dat hy inheemse Amerikaners vriendelik behandel, het hy begin inmeng met die plaaslike stamme, die plaaslike huweliksgebruike ontwrig en die een waarnemer 'n 'harem' genoem. Heinrich Lienhard, een van Sutter se Switserse werknemers, onthou dat Sutter 'n kamer langs sy kantoor gehad het waarin ''n groep Indiese vroue altyd gewag het'. Lienhard het Sutter ook daarvan beskuldig dat hy inheemse Amerikaanse meisies gemolesteer het.
Seksuele dwang was nie die enigste manier waarop Sutter sy beheer oor Indiane uitgeoefen het nie. Met die hulp van sy milisie het hy hulle ook tot slawe gemaak. 'Diegene wat nie wou werk nie, is as vyande beskou', het 'n boer in die omgewing herroep. 'Dikwels is die Sacramento -rivier rooi gekleur deur die bloed van die onskuldige Indiërs.'
Sutter het sy opsiener aangesê om sy bediendes "streng onder vrees" in die ry te hou en het nie geskroom om inheemse Amerikaners wat hulle nie aan harde arbeid op sy boerdery onderwerp het nie, dood te maak. "Sutter hou 600 tot 800 Indiërs in 'n volledige slawernystaat," het 'n besoekende setlaar, James Clyman, geskryf toe hy die boerdery van Sutter besoek het. "
Edwin Bryant, 'n koerantredakteur van Kentucky, wat deur Sutter op 'n ekspedisie na Kalifornië aangebied is, het beskryf hoe die inheemse werkers afval en oorblywende koringsemels uit houtbakke gevoer word sonder om gereedskap of bakke te eet. Intussen het hy 'n oorvloedige ete op porseleinborde bedien. Die slawe het in geslote kamers geslaap sonder beddens of meubels en is geslaan en soms vermoor as hulle geweier het om aan sy wense te voldoen.
Sutter, baie welkom by blanke setlaars, nooi baie vroeë pioniers na sy boerdery, waar hulle sien hoe hy inheemse Amerikaners behandel. Sy besoekers, skryf historikus Benjamin Madley, is diep geraak deur die behandeling van werkers wat hulle op Sutter se grond gesien het. "Hierdie ontmoetings het 'n kragtige sielkundige uitwerking gehad", skryf Madley, "wat rassisme aangevuur en koloniste emosioneel verhard het ... tot wreedheid teenoor Kalifornië -Indiane."
Vir Sutter was inheemse Amerikaners nie net 'n ekonomiese kragstasie nie - hulle was geldeenheid. Hy verhandel inheemse arbeid tussen plaaslike rancheros en nuwe intrekkers, stuur groot groepe inheemse Californiërs na verskillende werkgewers en ontvang twee dollar per dag vir hul dienste. Sutter se berugte gasvryheid aan wit setlaars - 'n hartlike verwelkoming wat direk in stryd was met sy beloftes aan die Mexikaanse regering - was aansienlik anders as die manier waarop hy die inheemse Amerikaners behandel het wat sy groeiende welvaart gehandhaaf het.
Nie al die werkers van John Sutter het uit slawe bestaan nie. Alhoewel sommige werkers slawe was, is ander 'betaal' in blikgeld wat slegs in sy winkel gebruik kon word. Ander - dikwels hoofde wie se steun Sutter nodig gehad het - is betaal vir hul werk.
Uiteindelik het 'n maselspidemie 'n groot deel van die inheemse Amerikaanse arbeiders op die plaas van Sutter uitgewis, en hy het besluit om 'n saagmeul op 'n nabygeleë eiendom te bou om die verlies aan werk te vergoed.
Wat daarna gebeur het, is welbekend: Sutter's Mill het 'n zero -waarde geword vir die Gold Rush van 1849. Maar selfs die ontdekking van goud word vergemaklik deur Sutter se slawerny en dwang van inheemse mense - inderdaad, Marshall is na die plek gelei waar hy die goudklompies opgemerk het deur 'n inheemse Amerikaanse gids en die vuiligheid wat daar gegrawe is deur 'n groep inheemse Amerikaners wat deur Sutter beheer word, wat van die goud geweet het, maar dit nie waardeer het nie.
Die verhaal het nie goed geëindig vir Sutter of Marshall nie. Nadat die voorkoms van goud bekend geword het, het plakkers en diewe die boerdery van Sutter oorval, sy gebou vernietig, sy rykdom gebuit en sy vee gesteel. Sy inheemse Amerikaanse werkers het hom verlaat en, aangesien die nuwe staat Kalifornië die wettigheid van grondtoelaes uit die Mexikaanse tyd beoordeel het, is sy aanspraak op die grond wat hy in 1841 toegestaan het, ongeldig verklaar.
Sutter, wat arm en skuldig was, het 'n versoekskrif aan die regering van die Verenigde State versoek tot sy dood in 1880. Marshall het nie veel beter gevaar nie: hy het bankrot geraak en is in armoede dood ná 'n onsuksesvolle loopbaan as goudmyner.
Maar die grootste verloorders was miskien die inheemse Amerikaners van die Gold Rush-era in Kalifornië. In die 20 jaar wat gevolg is op die ontdekking van goud, is 80 persent van die inheemse Amerikaanse bevolking van die staat uitgewis - slagoffers van verplasing, siektes en agensmoord wat ter wille van mag en goud bewerkstellig is. John Sutter het die weg gebaan vir hul vernietiging - maar sy wreedheid was net die begin.
Amerikaanse ervaring
Onder die Louisiana -aankoop in 1803 en die burgeroorlog in 1861, word die California Gold Rush deur baie historici beskou as die belangrikste gebeurtenis in die eerste helfte van die negentiende eeu.
'N Handbrief van 1849 van die California Gold Rush. PD.
Word vinnig ryk
Die ontdekking van goud by Sutter's Mill op 24 Januarie 1848 het die grootste migrasie in die geskiedenis van die Verenigde State losgelaat en mense uit 'n dosyn lande getrek om 'n multi-etniese samelewing aan die rand van Amerika te vorm. Die belofte van rykdom het die lewensverwagtinge van honderdduisende mense wat Kalifornië in 1849 en die daaropvolgende dekade oorstroom het, vir ewig verander. Die goud het ook die Amerikaanse ekonomie aangewakker en wilde drome aangevuur, soos die bou van 'n langspoorlyn.
Oorlog met Mexiko
Toe die Verenigde State en Mexiko in 1846 oorlog voer, was Kalifornië onder die los beheer van die Mexikaanse regering. Die bevolking van Kalifornië het bestaan uit ongeveer 6.500 Californios (mense van Spaanse of Mexikaanse mense), 700 buitelanders (hoofsaaklik Amerikaners) en 150.000 inheemse Amerikaners, wie se getalle in die helfte verminder is sedert die aankoms van die Spaanse in 1769. Die Californios woon op groot plase wat deur die Mexikaanse regering toegestaan is.
Voor die ontdekking van goud
Na twee jaar se geveg het die Verenigde State die oorwinnaar geword. Op 2 Februarie 1848 is die Verdrag van Guadelupe Hidalgo onderteken, wat die oorlog formeel beëindig en die beheer van Kalifornië aan die Verenigde State oorhandig het. Nie een van die twee het geweet dat goud onlangs ontdek is by die saagmeule wat die Switserse immigrant John Sutter naby Coloma gebou het nie.
Ongelooflikheid
Toe die nuus van goud eers by San Francisco kom, het dit ongeloof gekry. Toe marsjeer entrepreneur Sam Brannan deur die stad en waai 'n flessie met die edelmetaal as bewys. Teen middel Junie het die winkels leeg gestaan. Die meeste van die manlike bevolking van San Francisco het na die myne gegaan. Die res van Kalifornië het spoedig gevolg. Daardie somer het mans soos Antonio Franco Coronel, van Los Angeles, na goud gegrawe saam met ander Californios, inheemse Amerikaners en 'n paar Anglo -Amerikaners wat reeds in Kalifornië was.
'N Blik goud
Militêre goewerneur kolonel Richard B. Mason, wat deur die goudvelde getoer het, het 'n verslag geskryf wat verstommende feite bevat: twee mynwerkers op Weber Creek versamel $ 17 000 goud in sewe dae. In Mei, Junie en begin Julie beloop die winkel naby die myne $ 36,000. Mason het sy verslag en 'n blikkie goud na Washington gestuur, 'n reis van baie maande.
Militêre goewerneur kolonel Richard B. Mason. Met vergunning: Doug Scougale
Die verspreiding van die Woord
Die woord van die goud het die plekke bereik wat die meeste met die skip toeganklik is vir die kus van Kalifornië. Duisende mense van die Sandwich -eilande (Hawaii), Oregon, Mexiko, Chili, Peru en China het in die somer en herfs van 1848 na Kalifornië gegaan, voordat Amerikaners aan die ooskus 'n idee gehad het van wat sou kom. Europeërs sou binnekort volg.
Staat van die Unie
Aan die ooskus het koerante die eerste keer berigte oor die goudontdekking in die middel van die somer 1848 gepubliseer. Skeptiese redakteurs maak die idee minder, ondanks briewe uit Kalifornië soos die in die uitgawe van 14 September Philadelphia Noord -Amerika wat lui: "Jou strome het kuikens en ons s'n is bedek met goud." Pas toe president James K. Polk die verslag van kolonel Mason in sy toespraak op 5 Desember 1848 aangekondig het, het Amerikaners gelowiges geword.
Nooit gedroom van rykdom nie
Skielik het duisende Amerikaners (meestal mans) geld geleen, huise verpand of hul lewensbesparings bestee om voordeel te trek uit 'n geleentheid wat hulle nooit gedroom het nie. In 'n samelewing wat toenemend op loonarbeid berus, was die idee dat 'n persoon sy lot kan verander deur goud van die grond af te versamel, onweerstaanbaar. Sommige Amerikaanse vroue, onder wie Luzena Wilson, is na Kalifornië, maar die meeste het tuisgebly. Die agtergeblewe vroue het verantwoordelikhede op hulle geneem wat hulle nooit verwag het nie, soos om alleen vir gesinne te sorg, sake te bestuur en plase te bestuur.
'N Rits goudsoekers
Teen 1849 het die nie-inheemse bevolking van Kalifornië gegroei tot byna 100 000 mense. Byna twee derdes was Amerikaners. By aankoms in Kalifornië het immigrante geleer dat mynbou die moeilikste soort arbeid is. Hulle het rots beweeg, vuil gegrawe en in ysige strome gelaai. Hulle het vingernaels verloor, siek geword en ondervoeding opgedoen. Baie mense sterf aan siekte of per ongeluk. Hiram Pierce, 'n mynwerker van Troy, New York, het 'n begrafnis gehou vir 'n jong man uit Maine wat aan gangreen dood is nadat hy homself sorgeloos in die been geskiet het.
Sucker Flat
Ondanks die meedoënlose werk het die belofte van goud elke jaar meer mynwerkers na die weste getrek. Dorpe met name soos Hangtown, Sucker Flat en Murderers Bar het in elke belowende kloof van die Sierras ontstaan. Binne 'n paar jaar het die klein hawe van San Francisco 'n groot metropool geword met 'n lewendige ekonomie, en Kalifornië is die 31ste staat genoem.
Miljoene in goud
'N Verstommende hoeveelheid goud is uit die grond gehaal: $ 10 miljoen in 1849, $ 41 miljoen ($ 971 miljoen in 2005 dollar) in 1850, $ 75 miljoen in 1851 en $ 81 miljoen in 1852. Daarna het die opname geleidelik afgeneem tot 1857, toe dit het tot $ 45 miljoen per jaar gelykgemaak. Die gelukkiges het hul omstandighede verbeter, maar mynbou het veral geluk vereis. En nie almal het geluk gehad nie.
Wit mans se goud
Deel van die moeilikheid vir die individuele mynwerker was kompetisie. Namate die myngebied meer druk geword het, was daar minder goud om rond te gaan. Anglo-Amerikaanse mynwerkers het toenemend territoriaal geraak oor grond wat hulle as bedoel vir hulle beskou het en ander nasionaliteite met gewelddadige taktiek uit die myne gedwing. Wat die inheemse bevolking van Kalifornië betref, is honderd -en -twintigduisend inheemse Amerikaners tydens die goudstorming dood aan siektes, hongersnood en moord.
Vervaagde drome
Namate die oppervlak goud verdwyn het, het individuele mynwerkers hul drome gevind om die goudstorming in te haal, wat meer ontwykend geword het. Baie mans het by die groter mynmaatskappye gaan werk wat in tegnologie en toerusting belê het om die goud wat onder die oppervlak lê, te bereik. Teen die middel van die 1850's het mynbou vir goud minder 'n individuele onderneming geword en meer 'n loonarbeid.
Indringende tegniek
Die groot mynmaatskappye was baie suksesvol in die onttrekking van goud. Deur 'n tegniek genaamd hidroliese mynbou te gebruik, het hulle tussen 1860 en 1880 $ 170 miljoen goud onttrek.
In die proses het hulle die landskap verwoes en die riviere verstik met sediment. Die sediment het stroomaf gespoel en landerye oorstroom en gewasse verwoes.
'N Hofuitspraak maak 'n einde aan hidroliese mynbou in 1884, en die landbou neem die hoofrol agter die ekonomie in Kalifornië oor.
Om oor te gee of te weerstaan
Fisher ondersoek die gevolge van inheemse slawerny op kort en lang termyn in sy studie, en merk op dat tydens die oorlog die wydverspreide vrees om as slawe in die buiteland verkoop te word, deur inheemse Amerikaners van Philip gebruik is as 'n hulpmiddel om inboorlinge na hul kant te werf.
Ander inheemse Amerikaners het hulle oorgegee, het Fisher geskryf, óf in reaksie op eksplisiete aansporings deur die Engelse genade, of omdat hulle gehoop het dat dit as 'n verklaring van neutraliteit verstaan sou word. Hierdie oorgawe kan individue, gesinne, groter groepe of hele gemeenskappe wees, het Fisher gesê.
Sommige inheemse Amerikaners het in die oorlog hul dienste aan die Engelse aangebied, soos Awashonks, die vroulike hoof van 'n konfederasie van Sakonnet -Indiane, wat steun toegesê het op voorwaarde dat mans, vroue en kinders van Sakonnet nie uit die land gedood of uit die land gestuur sou word nie. slawe, volgens die studie.
Veral naby die einde van die oorlog, skryf Fisher, het inboorlinge in groter getalle oorgegee in direkte reaksie op beloftes van toegeeflikheid, maar 'toegeeflikheid' het geen konsekwente, praktiese betekenis nie.
Engelse owerhede het eers gefokus op die ontwapening van inboorlinge, hetsy deur gewere te verkoop wat deur oorgawe ingehandig is of hulle te verbied om wapens te dra, het Fisher geskryf. Engelse gemeenskappe het daarteen beswaar gemaak dat inboorlinge wat oorgegee het, eenvoudig vrygelaat kon word, en behuising en voeding was ingewikkeld; so dikwels is gevange en oorgegee inheemse Amerikaners eenvoudig in slawerny verkoop, beide in die buiteland en binne New England, of gedwing tot diensbaarheid vir beperkte termyn binne Engelse huishoudings. . Boonop is inheemse gemeenskappe gevra om 'n jaarlikse huldeblyk van vyf sjielings per man te betaal "as 'n erkenning van hul onderwerping" aan die regering van Connecticut, volgens die studie.
Die vergete slawe
Talle Europese slawehandelaars maak dorpe leeg en vreesbevange slagoffers dwing om op skepe op pad na die Atlantiese Oseaan te gaan. Lyne van vasgeketting mense wat na slawemarkte marsjeer onder die wakende oë van gewapende wagte. Geweldige slawe -eienaars wat marteling en verkragting gebruik om meer werk uit hul gevangenes te dwing.
Hierdie skerp beelde kan die vreeslike geskiedenis van Afrikaanse slawerny in die Verenigde State in gedagte hou. Maar eintlik beskryf hulle historiese gebeure in die Bahamas, Sentraal -Mexiko en die westelike grens van die Amerikaanse vasteland - en die slawe was Indiërs.
In die populêre kultuur en in die geleerdheid het slawerny 'n oomblik. Rasse -twis in die hede vestig nuwe aandag op die rassige onreg en ongelykheid in ons verlede. Onlangse en bekroonde boeke van Edward Baptist, Sven Beckert en Walter Johnson het die ekonomiese berekeninge agter planterwreedheid en die verband tussen slawerny, kapitalisme en Amerikaanse uitbreiding belig. Maar hierdie boeke, en films soos 12 jaar 'n slaaf, het ook die gewilde "swart en wit" beeld van slawerny versterk - 'n onreg wat blankes teenoor Afrikaners en hul afstammelinge gepleeg het, hoofsaaklik in die antebellum -suide.
RESENSIE
The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Slavernement in America,
deur Andrés Reséndez
(Houghton Mifflin Harcourt)
Hierdie beeld is op die punt om te verander, danksy 'n rits werke oor inheemse Amerikaanse slawerny, 'n relatief nuwe veld wat sedert die tagtigerjare van die ontploffing van belangstelling in Amerikaanse Indiese studies energie gekry het. Onlangse navorsing het ons getoon dat die meeste slawe in die Amerikas voor 1700 Indiërs was, dat Indiërs daarna 'n aansienlike deel van die wêreldwye slawe -bevolking uitmaak en dat Europeërs Indiërs van Quebec tot New Orleans en van New England tot die Carolinas verslaaf het. Werke soos Pekka Hämäläinen s’n Die Comanche Ryk (Yale University Press) het veranderende tradisies van slawerny in die inheemse Amerikaanse samelewings ondersoek, terwyl ander geleerdes, veral Alan Gallay en Brett Rushforth, die slawerny van Indiërs deur Franse en Engelse koloniste aangepak het.
Tog bly daar groot leemtes in ons begrip. In sy pragtig geskrewe (en genomineerde National Book Award) The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America, Bied Andrés Reséndez 'n toer-de-force verslag oor die slawerny van Indiërs in die nuwe wêreld, en verbreed in die proses ons definisies van slawerny. Deel van die uitdaging van die onderwerp is dat die Indiese serwituut baie vorme aanneem, wat dit moeilik maak om slagoffers in die rekords te identifiseer. Reséndez, 'n professor aan die Universiteit van Kalifornië in Davis, bied 'n omvangryke, maar verdedigbare definisie, insluitend pioen rebelle wat tot slawe van weeskinders en rondlopers gevonnis is wat aan diensslagoffers van die mita ('n dwangarbeidskwota wat op Indiese dorpe opgelê is) en oënskynlik gratis loonarbeiders wie se werkgewers hulle nooit betaal het nie.
Met behulp van hierdie definisie skat Reséndez die aantal Indiese slawe in die Amerikas op tussen 2,5 miljoen en 5 miljoen - minder as die ongeveer 12,5 miljoen Afrikane wat tussen die 15de eeu en die laat 19de eeu tot slawe gemaak is, maar tog 'n ontsaglike getal. Boonop voer hy aan dat die bevolkingsverlies as gevolg van slawerny eintlik baie groter was in die Amerikas as in Afrika. Slawerny, nie net 'n epidemiese siekte nie, was die belangrikste oorsaak van die hoë sterftesyfer van 70 tot 90 persent wat sommige Indiese samelewings ondervind het.
By die onthulling van die sentraliteit van slawerny tot kolonisasie, Die ander slawerny kom neer op 'n verskriklike beskuldiging van ryk. Begin met Christopher Columbus, wat slawerny voorgehou het as 'n manier om ryk te finansier, opeenvolgende golwe van conquistadores en koloniseerders het baat gevind by die handel in mense. Sommige, waaronder Columbus, het Indiërs in 'n 'omgekeerde middelste gang' na die Ou Wêreld uitgevoer, maar die oorgrote meerderheid van die slawe het in Amerika gebly.
Reséndez beskryf die mynbousentrums in Mexiko, veral Parral, wat 'n handel in slawe oor 'n radius van duisend myl aangespoor het en selfs die Filippyne bereik het. Tweehonderd jaar later het California Gold Rush -entrepreneurs soos John Sutter ook vroulike Indiese arbeid ontgin. Selfs die Euro-Amerikaners was vasbeslote om die Indiese slawerny-insluitend Jesuïete-sendelinge, die Mormone, Kit Carson en die Amerikaanse weermag-te vermy-het uiteindelik daaraan deelgeneem. Sendings in Sonora het gemilitariseer geraak presidios wat duisende Seri -Indiane verslaaf en hervestig het. Brigham Young het uiteindelik tyd gekry met 'n wet wat Mormone toegelaat het om gevange kinders te "loskoop" en hulle vir 20 jaar in slawerny te hou.
Een van die belangrikste bydraes van Reséndez is sy strewe na die verhaal van Indiese slawerny uit die Spaanse Amerika in die 19de en 20ste eeu, wat die kontinuïteit toon. Onwillekeurige diensbaarheid duur voort in Kalifornië en die suidweste, selfs na die Burgeroorlog. Reséndez impliseer dat 'die ander slawerny' eers tot ver in die 20ste eeu geëindig het omdat die vele vorme dit moeilik gemaak het om via statute te stop, en omdat te veel grondeienaars 'n aandeel in die voortbestaan daarvan gehad het.
Die boek kom te midde van 'n lewendige debat oor slawerny en kapitalisme. Terwyl Eric Williams in 1944 was Kapitalisme en slawerny (University of North Carolina Press) het voorgestel dat die Afrikaanse slawehandel die Britse industrialisering kapitaliseer, Die ander slawerny onthul dat Indiese slawerny kolonisasie self befonds het. Aangesien Indiese slawerny van groot nywerhede tot klein huishoudings en plase floreer het, maak Reséndez se werk nuwe paaie oop om na te dink oor hoe slawerny dit vir baie Amerikaners moontlik gemaak het - nie net groot planters nie - om aan die markrevolusie deel te neem.
Die lang verhaal van Indiese slawerny spreek ook van die volharding van onvrye arbeid binne oënskynlik vry-arbeidskapitalistiese ekonomieë. Reséndez kom tot die gevolgtrekking dat mensehandel van vandag en die uitbuiting van immigrantwerkers die direkte erfgename is van die praktyke wat hy opspoor.
Die boek laat die leser met langdurige vrae, veral rakende geslag en ras. Die meeste Indiese slawe was vroue in Spaanse Amerika, met vroue wat hoër pryse as mans beveel het. Was dit 'n bewys van die belangrikheid van vroulike arbeid of 'n aanduiding dat seksuele dienste van Indiese vroue 'n belangrike element van die slawehandel was?
En hoe het die inheemse Amerikaanse slawerny ingeskakel by die opkomende rasse -orde in Amerika? Aangesien geslag en etnisiteit beslis 'n rol speel by wie die samelewing gemik is op misbruik, moet ons beter verstaan hoe Indiese slawerny die idees van Amerikaners oor ras en klas gevorm het, en omgekeerd.
Sulke vrae is 'n bewys van hoeveel Die ander slawerny het die veld se uitsigte verbreed. Reséndez se werk, 'n ryk, ambisieuse boek waaroor almal in die veld praat, bewys dat Indiese slawerny van die begin af 'n noodsaaklike deel van die Amerikaanse verhaal was. Dit plaas dit in die hart van ons voortgesette gesprek oor die nalatenskap van slawerny in Amerika, in samewerking met Michelle Alexander Die nuwe Jim Crow (The New Press) en Ava DuVernay se dokumentêr 13de, werke wat ander vorme van onvryheid ondersoek.
Indiese slawe het gehelp om Amerika te bou, teen 'n geweldige prys. Hulle verhaal verdien om te vertel.
Margaret Ellen Newell is 'n professor in geskiedenis aan die Ohio State University en die skrywer van Brethren by Nature: New England Indiane, koloniste en die oorsprong van Amerikaanse slawerny (Cornell University Press, 2015).
Verslaafde Indiërs van Kalifornië voor die tydperk van die Verenigde State
Daar is 'n lang geskiedenis van inheemse slawerny en dwangarbeid in Kalifornië, wat dateer uit die vroeë Spaanse sendelinge (1769-1821), later Californio (lang tyd Mexikaanse koloniste) boere en ander vroeë Euro-Amerikaanse immigrante. [21]
Indiërs van Kalifornië wat langs die Stille Oseaan -kus woon, van San Diego noord tot by die San Francisco -baai, was die eerstes wat deur Fransiskaanse sendelinge vir hul arbeid uitgebuit is. Teen 1805 het binnelandse stamme onderhewig geword aan periodieke militêre en missionêre "werwing" om gesonde arbeiders te voorsien, wat die siek en vinnig kwynende sendingindiane vervang. [22]
Dit is moeilik om te glo wat ons mense in die missies deurgemaak het. Ek onthou wat ouma (Filicad Calac Molina) jare gelede vir ons gesê het. Haar ma het haar vertel van die Mission San Luis Rey. Die Vader daar het Spanjaarde wat die Indiane daar as slawe laat werk het, en as hulle weghardloop, kom die Spanjaarde na Rincon en haal die babas, swaai hulle aan die arm of been en gooi hulle in die kaktus ... terwyl die babas huil, Spanjaarde sou die ouers laat vertel waar die Indiërs wegkruip ... diegene wat van die missie weggeloop het. (Max Mazzetti, stamvoorsitter, Rincon Reservation) [23]
Toe die eerste Mexikaanse goewerneur in 1825 in Kalifornië aankom, het inheemse mense in die Spaanse invloedsgebiede effektief die handel in Spaans met Mexikaanse meesters beleef. Die nuwe meesters sou die nuwe klas landbaronne wees wat sekulêre slawerny sou beoefen. Dit gebeur ondanks die feit dat slawerny in die hele Mexikaanse Republiek verbied is, en dat inheemse mense in 1824 burgerskap verleen is. Dit beteken geensins dat Indiërs kon stem of as gelykes behandel word nie. Mexiko het, net soos die destydse Verenigde State, stembeperkings gebaseer op eiendom en beroep.
Op plaaslike vlak is inheemse mense in Kalifornië gedurende die Mexikaanse tydperk (1822-1846) verniet vernietig en word dit beskou as 'n subklas waarvan die meesters hul arbeid uitgebuit het en dit as 'n vorm van valuta gebruik het. Gedurende die laat 1830's en vroeë 1840's het Euro-Amerikaanse immigrante soos Johann August Sutter Indiërs in sy kolonie in die Sacramento-vallei as veldwerk gebruik, terwyl vroue en kinders aan sy talle skuldeisers gegee is. Talle sogenaamde "wilde Indiërs" is gereeld in 'n geveg gevange geneem en aan die oorwinnaars en hul troepe gegee. [24]
Die emigrant oor die land, Jacob Wright Harlan, die pelsjagter James Clyman en John Henry Brown, die opsiener van die kookhuis in Fort Sutter, het almal later geskryf oor hul waarnemings van die behandeling van inheemse mense in die fort van John Sutter. Sutter was die stigter van die stad Sacramento:
Die Capt [Sutter] hou 600 of 800 Indiane in 'n volledige slawerny -toestand, en toe ek die doodsgevoel gehad het om hulle te sien eet, kan ek 'n kort beskrywing gee van 10 of 15 bakke van 3 of 4 voet lank uit die kookkamer en sit in die Broiling sun – al die Lobourers rasper en en klein hardloop soos 'n paar varke na die trogies en voer hulself met hul hande, solank die bakke selfs 'n vog bevat. [25]
Die einde van die Meksikaan-Amerikaanse oorlog in 1848 het heftige debatte in die kongres veroorsaak oor die uitbreiding van slawerny na die nuutverworwe gebiede, insluitend Kalifornië. Inwoners van Kalifornië, deur die verteenwoordiging van afgevaardigdes, het die kwessie in gedagte gehou tydens 'n staatsgrondwetlike byeenkoms in 1849. Die afgevaardigdes, wat bestaan uit nuut aangekomde Amerikaanse immigrante en Mexikaanse grondeienaars, worstel met rasvrae. 'N Paar van hulle was duidelik van mening dat dit weerspieël word in die uitgawe van die gebiedskoerant van 15 Maart 1848 Die Kaliforniër, wat gesê het:
Sewende. Ons begeer slegs 'n blanke bevolking in Kalifornië, selfs die Indiërs onder ons is, sover ons gesien het, meer 'n oorlas as 'n voordeel vir die land wat ons daarvan ontslae wil raak. [26]
Uiteindelik aanvaar die kiesers in Kalifornië egter 'n grondwet in 1849 (voordat Kalifornië 'n staat geword het), wat 'n afdeling bevat wat lui:
Artikel 18. Slawerny is verbode. Onwillekeurige diensbaarheid is verbode behalwe om misdaad te straf. [27]
Kalifornië se anti-slawerny-posisie rakende Afro-Amerikaners het die debat in die Amerikaanse senaat destyds deels verhoog omdat dit die balans beïnvloed het tussen state wat slawerny bevoordeel en state wat dit teëgestaan het. Die debat is tydelik opgelos deur die kompromie van 1850, wat Kalifornië as 'n vrystaat tot staatskaping toegelaat het.
Amerikaanse ervaring
In Augustus 1852 het die Alta Kalifornië 'n stryd teen die brouery blootgestel. Die bekendste Chinese mevrou van San Francisco was van plan om 'n berugte Chinese leier te dagvaar vir afpersing. Die pragtige juffrou Ah Toy beweer dat Yee Ah Tye geëis het dat haar prostitute in Dupont Street hom belasting betaal. Sy het hom dadelik uitoorlê deur iets te doen wat sy nooit in China sou kon doen nie - en dreig om hom hof toe te neem.
Eiser en verweerder
"Juffrou Atoy weet 'n ding of twee, nadat sy drie jaar onder die voue van die Star-spangled Banner gewoon het en die lug van republikanisme inasem, en sy kan nie maklik in sulke maatreëls gedompel word nie. Boonop woon sy naby die polisiekantoor en weet waar om beskerming te soek, nadat hy ten minste vyftig keer by die blokfluit was as 'n verweerder. , 'het 'n vrolike verslaggewer geskryf.
Portret van 'n Chinese man, c1853. Met vergunning: Oakland Museum of California
Leierskaprol
'N Jaar later is Yee Ah Tye inderdaad in die opskorting gedompel, hierdie keer weens aanranding en groot geweld. Oorspronklik uit Guangdong, het die man in 'n koerant 'n 'petty despot' op 'n Chinese rommel na San Francisco geseil net voor die goudstorming, ongeveer 20 jaar oud. Hy het die eerste nag op die strate deurgebring, in 'n deur. Yee Ah Tye het Engels in Hong Kong geleer en kort voor lank het hy 'n leiersposisie in die magtige Sze Yup -vereniging geword.
Donker kant
Sze Yup, en ander sulke Chinese organisasies, het Chinese nuwelinge ontmoet vir die goudstormloop by die dokke, hulle 'n blyplek gegee, werk gekry of hulle toegerus vir die myne. Hulle het 'n belangrike diens gelewer vir 'n groep mense wat min Engels gepraat het. Maar Sze Yup het ook donker kante gehad, soos die gebruik van brute krag. Die San Francisco Herald beweer Yee Ah Tye "het baie van sy nederiger landgenote ernstige lyfstraf opgelê. Hulle het hulle ore afgesny, hulle geslaan en ure saam vasgeketting gehou."
Goudberg
Teen 1848, toe die eerste Chinese in San Francisco aankom, het die Chinese reeds 'n gevestigde patroon om China te verlaat om in ander dele van die wêreld te werk. Hoë belasting na die Opiumoorloë het baie boere en boere van hul grond gedwing. Verskeie jare se vloede en droogtes het tot ekonomiese desperaatheid gelei. Toe bring handelskepe nuus van Gam Saan, of goudberg. Die meerderheid Chinese mans wat na Kalifornië gevaar het, was ongeletterd, maar het gedroom oor nuwe moontlikhede.
'N Vyfde van die bevolking
Chinese mynwerkers was geneig om in groepe en werke te werk wat die Amerikaners laat vaar het. Aanvanklik het Amerikaners die nuwelinge - met hul wye hoede en eetstokkies - eienaardig gevind en sou hulle Chinese kampe besoek vir vermaak. Toe, in 1852, 'n jaar van ernstige oesmislukking in die suide van China, het 20.026 Chinese die doeanehuis in San Francisco oorstroom. Die vorige jaar het net 2 716 aangebreek. Teen die einde van die 1850's was Chinese immigrante 'n vyfde van die bevolking van die vier provinsies wat die Suidelike Mynwese uitgemaak het.
Rassisme
'N Yankee -mynwerker het gekla: "Chinamen word heeltemal te volop in hierdie land." Gouverneur John Bigler het openbare gevoel uitgespreek toe hy voorstel om die vloed van Chinese immigrasie te stuit. A Chinese man responded with a letter to the Alta Kalifornië, writing "The effects of your late message has been thus far to prejudice the public mind against my people, to enable those who wait the opportunity to hunt them down, and rob them of the rewards of their toil."
Robberies and Murders
In May 1852 the state imposed a Foreign Miners Tax, the second such tax on non-Americans in two years. This time, a levy of $3 per month was explicitly directed at the Chinese miners. And, as predicted, violence increased. Die Alta Kalifornië reported that 200 Chinese miners had been robbed and four murdered at Rich Gulch. When miner Alfred Doten's camp was robbed, he blamed some convenient Chinese. "We visited our camp on the gulch and found it had been broken into so we went in and kicked up a row with the Chinese and told them we would shoot them if they stole any more."
No Longer Allowed to Testify
In 1854 Ah Toy was no longer able to take her grievances to court. In the case People v. Hall, the California Supreme Court reversed the conviction of George Hall and two other white men who had murdered a Chinese man. Hall and his companions had been convicted based on testimony of some Chinese witnesses. In its reversal the court extended the California law that African Americans and Native Americans could not testify in court to include the Chinese. The reversal made it impossible to prosecute violence against Chinese immigrants.
Business and Servitude
Chinese men moved into other occupations, including the laundry business, domestic service and later railroad building. Yee Ah Tye became a partner in a store called Hop Sing in La Porte. By 1866 it was the richest Chinese store in that town, with a value of $1,500 (about $36,000 in 2005 dollars). Only a few Chinese women came to the U.S. before 1880, but many of those who did served as prostitutes for people like Ah Toy. Upon arrival, they were examined and sold for between $300 and $3,000 to brothel owners or wealthy Chinese seeking a mistress.
Rose-colored Glasses
When Chinese miners sent their gold home, their families quickly assumed a prominent new place. Women married to successful miners were called "gold mountain wives." As they built new houses, they were subject to gossip and envy. Rarely did stories about the hard work and the daily discrimination faced by Chinese in America find their way across the Pacific.
Significant Contributions
By 1870 there were 63,000 Chinese in U.S., 77% of whom were in California. That year, Chinese miners contributed more than $5 million to state's coffers through the Foreign Miners Tax, almost one quarter of state's revenue.
In 1882, Congress enacted the Chinese Exclusion Act, the only American law to specifically bar one group from immigrating to the United States.
COMING TO TERMS WITH GENOCIDE
In today's partisan world of American politics there is a bipartisan consensus on one issue, sweeping the troublesome issue of native American genocide under the rug. There is a reason for this. Any effort to discuss the genocidal origins of America would create two very severe problems. In the first place it would raise questions about the moral authority of the American system at home and the moral authority of American imperialism abroad. A second major problem would be that a frank look at US origins would mandate trillions of dollars in reparations to native Americans.
Meanwhile, the living conditions of native Americans are among the worst in the nations
A particularly amusing aspect of modern America is the hysteria about "illegal immigrants" from Mexico. Who are the real "illegal immigrants". Frank discussion about this is to be avoided at all costs.
However, the past does haunt the future. Karma is powerful force. History is a long term game. There are reasons to fear for America's future if the sins of the past are not recognized. This article to stimulate debate here.
The truth matters. You cannot live a lie.
America has many positive aspects. However, a frank look at the darker aspects of the past really is necessary if we are to build a viable future.
The Enslaved Native Americans Who Made The Gold Rush Possible - HISTORY
S lavery has been practiced since the fall of man. It is not a product of &ldquoracism&rdquo it is not an issue of skin color it is a product of man&rsquos sinful heart. The Lord Jesus Christ described man&rsquos condition with perfect accuracy and uncovered the fundamental issue:
&ldquo And he said, That which cometh out of the man, that defileth the man. For from within, out of the heart of men, proceed evil thoughts, adulteries, fornications, murders, Thefts, covetousness, wickedness, deceit, lasciviousness, an evil eye, blasphemy, pride, foolishness: All these evil things come from within, and defile the man&rdquo (Mark 7:20-23).
When men believed the devil&rsquos lie and chose sin over God, they became slaves, slaves not only to sin but slaves physically. History is filled with the sad accounts of men being enslaved by their fellow men and treated as mere cattle, from the slaves under the brutal whips of ancient pharaoh to the serfs of 17th century Europe to the dirt poor classes of modern Asia and Africa.
Slavery has been practiced by the white man, the black man, the red man, the yellow man, and every other kind of man.
Slavery was practiced by the Babylonians, the Hittites, the Assyrians, the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Persians, the ancient Brits, the Danes, the Romans, the African kingdoms, the South American kingdoms, the Chinese, Indians, Mongols, Mughuls, Burmese, Native Americans, the Muslim kingdoms, Spanish, British, and Americans. It is still practiced in some places.
BABYLONIAN king Hammurabi (ruled c. 1792-1750 BC) enslaved multitudes. &ldquoAt the basis of it lay the slave population, the necessary condition of all economic activity in antiquity. Slaves were employed upon the farms, by the manufacturers and in the temples. The sources of the supply were various. War furnished many others had fallen from the position of free laborers still others were purchased from abroad, or were children of native bondsmen&rdquo (George Goodspeed, A History of the Babylonians and Assyrians , 1902, Kindle Locations 876-879).
Ancient EGYPT practiced slavery on a massive scale. Egypt infamously enslaved the entire nation of Israel. The Midianites knew there was a ready market in Egypt for slaves such as Joseph (Ge. 37:28). This type of thing happened continually in ancient times. &ldquoTravellers were easily and often illegally captured in foreign lands where nobody knew them, and sold into slavery and there was often no one they could appeal to for help&rdquo (&ldquoSlavery,&rdquo reshafim.org). Women were purchased for the harems of the Pharaoh and other nobility. Pharaoh Amenhotep III ordered 40 &ldquovery beautiful concubines without blemish&rdquo from Syria. Multitudes became slaves as prisoners of war. Ancient Egyptian monuments describe large numbers of slaves taken in battle. For example, Ramses III wrote, &ldquoI laid low the Meshwesh, the Libyans, the Esbet, the Keykesh, the Shai, the Hes and the Beken. . I carried away those whom my sword spared, as numerous captives, pinioned like birds before my horses, their wives and their children by the ten thousand, their cattle in number like hundred thousands&rdquo (James Henry Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt , Part IV). Thutmose III returned from a campaign in Canaan with almost 90,000 prisoners. Many slaves were sent to work in the gold and copper mines of Nubia and Sinai, where they were worked to death under harsh conditions in the terrible heat. Other slaves worked on &ldquothe estates of the pharaohs, the nobility and the priests.&rdquo &ldquoPharaoh Seti I announced on the Wadi Halfa stela how he had endowed Min-Amen&rsquos temple at Buhen, so that his storehouse was filled with male and female slaves from the captivity of his majesty, L.P.H. Ramses III is said to have given 113,000 to the temples during the course of his reign&rdquo (&ldquoSlavery,&rdquo reshafim.org). &ldquoIf a [slave] stole so much as an animal hide he could be whipped with 100 lashes and stabbed five times in the back, and then be sent back to work&rdquo (&ldquoSpear injuries show worker life in ancient Egypt,&rdquo USA Today , Oct. 13, 2015). The wealthy included their slaves in lists of valuable assets. The children of slaves belonged to their masters, and slave families were passed from generation to generation by inheritance.
A large portion of ancient CHINESE society consisted of slaves. Qin Shi Huang, emperor of the Chin Dynasty, castrated captives &ldquoto mark them and make them slaves&rdquo (&ldquoThe 25 most ruthless leaders of all time,&rdquo Business Insider , Feb. 4, 2016). The Great Wall was built largely by slaves and there was no concern for the cost in human lives. It is said that &ldquoevery stone cost a human life&rdquo ( A Brief History of Chinese and Japanese Civilizations ).
The Phoenician city-state of CARTHAGE gained control over tribes and cities along the African coast and far inland, enslaving the populations.
Slaves formed a large portion of the ancient Greek population. Many were chattel slaves who were called by Aristotle &ldquoan animate or ensouled piece of property.&rdquo Slaves were obtained by warfare, kidnapping, and piracy. They were bought and sold like other pieces of property. The price of the slave depended on his or her education, skill, appearance, and health. &ldquoThe majority of well-to-do Athenians probably owned two or three slaves, whereas the wealthy possessed between ten and twenty. . Nikias, one of the richest men in Athens in the late fifth century BC, owned 1,000 slaves, whom he leased out to fellow citizens at the rate of one obol per slave per day&rdquo (Garland, Daily Life of the Ancient Greeks , bl. 70). Slaves had no practical legal rights. They were often starved, beaten, abused, even killed, depending on the whim of the master. &ldquoA runaway slave was branded with a hot iron upon capture.&rdquo
The SPARTANS enslaved an entire large tribe of people, the Helots. They were the property of the state and were assigned to Spartan citizens. There were possibly seven helot slaves for each Spartan. They were forced to do the agricultural and household work and any manual labor, freeing the Spartans to devote themselves to military training. Helot farmers gave half their produce to the Spartans. They had &ldquoan altogether cruel and bitter condition.&rdquo The poet Tyrtaios described the Helots as &ldquoasses worn down with great burdens.&rdquo They were forced to wear a dogskin cap and were beaten each year so they would not forget they were slaves. They were degraded in many ways, such as being forced to get drunk and dance and sing to entertain the Spartans.
PHILIP OF MACEDON (382-336 BC) razed at least 35 Greek cities to the ground, enslaved women and children by the tens of thousands, killed prisoners taken from defeated armies.
ALEXANDER THE GREAT enslaved hundreds of thousands. He destroyed the great city of Thebes, killing 6,000 of its citizens, selling 30,000 as slaves. When he destroyed Tyre in 332 BC, he sold 30,000 men, women, and children into slavery. He did the same to many others.
In the ROMAN EMPIRE , as many as 35% of the population were slaves, and their condition was often terrible. The city of Rome had a population of one to two million, half of whom were slaves (Henry Burton, The Biblical World , Vol. 3, 1894). After Rome destroyed Jerusalem and Israel&rsquos temple in AD 70, more than a million Jews were killed or sold as slaves. Slaves were considered property and had no legal rights under Roman law. They were called res (a thing, an object) and res mortales (a mortal thing). On the farm, slaves were called instrumentum vocalis (a talking tool). Farm slaves were branded on the forehead, chained together in teams of ten, and guarded by a foreman with a whip. Slaves could not own property or legally marry. They could be punished as the owner pleased, tortured, raped, castrated, prostituted, even executed. Runaways were treated as thieves (having stolen themselves from their masters) and suffered terrible tortures as warnings to others. When the slave revolt under Spartacus was defeated in 71 BC, 6,000 of them were crucified along the Appian Way to Rome and their bodies left to rot on the crosses for months. Children born of slaves were the property of their owners. Many were worked to death under cruel conditions. Consider the Egyptian mines. &ldquoEgypt&rsquos gold and quicksilver mines were worked by slaves, criminals and prisoners of war, including women, elderly men and children. Young men hacked the quartz loose. Older men broke the quartz into fragments. Children dragged the quartz to the grinders, powered by women who like others worked without rest, walking in circles and pushing levers that rotated a shaft. According to the Greek writer Agatharchides, in the mid-100s BCE, relief came only with death, which these miners welcomed&rdquo (&ldquoPrivilege, Poverty and Failed Revolutions,&rdquo Macrohistory and World Timeline , www.fsmitha.com). This description refers to the time of the Greek Empire, but nothing of significance changed under the Romans.
ISLAM was a slaving people since Mohammed, who took one-fifth of the slaves for himself. Muslims turned slavery into a major industry for over a thousand years. It was a &ldquoMuslim gold rush.&rdquo &ldquoSlave taking rapidly burgeoned into a major industry&rdquo (Robert Davis, Christian Slaves , bl. 140). Between 698-709, Muslims defeated the black Berber tribes of northwestern Africa, selling 60,000 into slavery. &ldquo Islamic Spain became the hub of a vast new slave-trade. Hundreds of thousands of European slaves, both from Christian territories and from the lands of the pagan Slavs, were imported into the Caliphate, there to be used as concubines (if female) or to be castrated (if male) and made into harem guards or the personal body-guards of the Caliph&rdquo (Emmet Scott, Muhammad and Charlemagne Revisited ). Between 712 and 1193, Muslim armies raided India in subsequent waves of attacks. They demolished temples, robbed, murdered, raped, and enslaved millions. For example, in 1001 AD Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni took 500,000 slaves from Jayapala, including thousands of children. In the days of Mughal ruler Babur (r. 1526-1531), slave markets were set up at Kabul and Qandahar &ldquowhere caravans came from India carrying slaves ( barda ) and other commodities to sell at great profits&rdquo (M.A. Khan, Islamic Jihad , bl. 216). Mughal governor Said Khan Chaghtai &ldquopossessed 1,200 eunuch slaves.&rdquo Shah Jahan (builder of the Taj Mahal) had a harem of 5,000 concubines. The magnificent Mughal buildings were constructed largely through slave labor. &ldquo[I]t is the great multitude of enslaved Indians who supplied unconditional labor, with Muslim masters on watch with whips in their hands. . Sultan Alauddin accumulated 70,000 slaves, who worked continuously in building. . Sultan Firoz Tughlaq assembled 180,000 slaves for his services&rdquo (M.A. Khan. Islamic Jihad , pp. 229, 230). The Ottomans were major slavers. An estimated one-fifth of the population consisted of slaves. Most towns and cities had a slave marketplace called an Esir . It is estimated that over 28 million Africans were enslaved in the Muslim world in the past 14 centuries&rdquo (&ldquoA Focus on the African Slaves in the Arab World,&rdquo African Echo , Sep. 18, 2015). Another four million white Europeans were enslaved (Robert Davis, Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters ). The Ottomans also traded in slaves in the region of the Black Sea. An estimated three million Europeans from this region were enslaved between the 14th to the 17th centuries (Alan Fisher, &ldquoMuscovy and the Black Sea Slave Trade,&rdquo Canadian American Slavic Studies , 1972, Vol. 6, pp. 575&ndash594). The Ottomans also purchased white slaves from the Vikings . They lived in North Europe in modern Sweden and Denmark and conducted pirate raids between the eighth to the eleventh centuries. They are called Norse and Scandinavians. They raided throughout the British Isles, western and northern Europe. They traveled east as far as the Volga River in Russia where they sold white European slaves to the Muslims, particularly white women for the harems (M.A. Khan, Islamic Jihad , pp. 322, 323). Beginning in the 8th century, Muslims took over the ancient African slave trade that had existed since the Egyptian pharaohs. &ldquoThe African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the nineteenth). . Four million slaves were exported via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean&rdquo (Elikia M&rsquobokolo, &ldquoA Hundred and Fifty Years after France Abolished Slavery,&rdquo Le Monde diplomatique , April 1998). Beginning in the eighth century, Arab traders on the Swahili Coast in east Africa bought Zanj (Bantu) captives from the interior of Africa (present-day Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique) and sold them to Muslims in Egypt, Arabia, Persia, India, and elsewhere. Eventually tens of thousands of slaves were captured and sold every year. &ldquoA 10th-century caliph of Baghdad had 11,000 slaves at his palace&rdquo (&ldquoHuman Cargo,&rdquo New York Times , Mar. 4, 2001). Slaving continued on the East Coast of Africa until the 19th century. Under Omani Arabs in the 19th century as many as 50,000 slaves were passing through Zanzibar each year (&ldquoSwahili Coast,&rdquo National Geographic , Oct. 17, 2002). Northern Africa became the base for the Muslim Barbary pirates . They operated throughout the Mediterranean and into the Atlantic from their bases in Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. These states were a part of the Ottoman Empire, and the sultans in Constantinople received a portion of the slaves and stolen wealth. They were &ldquothe recognized overlords of the Mohammedan world&rdquo (Brian Kilmeade, Thomas Jefferson and the Tripoli Pirates , bl. 36). From the 16th to the 19th century, they captured an estimated 1 to 1.25 million white Europeans (Robert Davis, Christian Slaves ). This doesn&rsquot include those captured by Morocco and other raiders. It was called &ldquoChristian stealing.&rdquo Slavery is still practiced widely in Sudan and Mauritania . In the latter, slavery has existed since the Arabs conquered it in the 12th century. Though abolished in 1981, the law is not enforced. Estimates of slaves in Mauritania today &ldquorange from 100,000 to more than a half-million.&rdquo Slaves &ldquoare used for labor, sex and breeding. The property of their masters, they are passed down through generations, given as wedding gifts or exchanged for camels, trucks, guns or money. . According to a Human Rights Watch/Africa report, routine punishments for slaves in Mauritania--for the slightest fault--include beatings, denial of food and prolonged exposure to the sun, with hands and feet tied together. More serious infringement of the master&rsquos rule (in American slave-owning parlance, &lsquogetting uppity&rsquo) can lead to prolonged tortures known as &lsquothe camel treatment,&rsquo in which the slave&rsquos body is slowly torn apart the &lsquoinsect treatment,&rsquo in which tiny desert insects are inserted and sealed into the ear canal until the slave is driven mad and &lsquoburning coals,&rsquo a torture not fit to describe in a family newspaper&rdquo (&ldquoArabs Have Black Slaves Today,&rdquo Israel National News , Mar. 29, 2013).
The ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE of the 15th to the 19th centuries was a continuation of this ancient, global practice. In the 1440s, the Portuguese began trading in gold and slaves from the western coast of Africa. The first 200 slaves were brought to Portugal in 1444. This was the beginning of the wretched slave trade which corrupted western nations for four hundred years.
Historically, women were basically slaves in most nations and under most religions. Of Hindu women in India in former times, the Flemish painter Frans Solvyns said, &ldquoWhile their husband lives they are slaves, when he dies they must be ready to resign in the most cruel manner a life of which they never tasted the enjoyments [referring to the practice of wife burning called sati ]&rdquo (Robert Hardgrave, Jr., The Representation of Sati: Four Eighteenth Century Etchings by Baltazard Solvyns ).
Slavery is a fact of man&rsquos wretched history, and it is a reflection of man&rsquos fallen condition.
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Idaho - History and Heritage
Prior to the arrival of European and Mexican explorers, roughly 8,000 American Indians, representing two distinct groups, inhabited Idaho: the Great Basin Shoshone and Bannock tribes of the Shoshone-Bannock, the Shoshone Paiute and the Plateau tribes of the Coeur d'Alene, Nez Perce and Kootenai. Today, Idaho's American Indian heritage, their tribes and chiefs are reflected in county names like Nez Perce, Benewah, Shoshone, Bannock and Kootenai counties and the communities of Shoshone, Pocatello, Blackfoot, Nezperce, White Bird, Kamiah, Lapwai, Weippe, Kooskia, Picabo and Tendoy.
Verwante inhoud
Spanish explorers made trips west beginning in 1592. Spaniards introduced pigs, horses, domestic fowl, tomatoes, beans, corn and garlic to the American Indians of the Northwest. Lewis and Clark were the first Euro-Americans to set foot on what is now known as Idaho. They encountered Spanish-speaking American Indians as well as those who spoke their tribal language. The expedition was followed by French-Canadian fur trappers resulting in names of communities like Coeur d'Alene (French for "heart of the awl") and Boise (Le Bois-French for "the trees").
Even the impact of Hawaiian Islanders employed as laborers in the Northwest fur trade received recognition through the naming of Owyhee County. Almost the entire staff of Fort Boise from 1834-1844 were from the Hawaiian Islands.
Mountain men, including Spaniards and Mexicans, lived off the land as trappers and hunters. In the 1860s, there were a number of Mexican vaqueros (cowboys) living in the Treasure Valley. By 1863 Mexicans were mining at Spanishtown, a camp near Rocky Bar. Jesus Urquides, one of several successful Mexican businesspeople, came to Boise in 1863, became a prominent Pacific Northwest packer and built the Spanish Village in 1870s to house his Mexican packers. The 1870 census included 60 Mexican-born individuals.
York, William Clark's African American servant, traveled through what is now Idaho in 1805 with the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Respected then by the Indians, today York is credited as being of great value to the trip’s success. Some fur trappers, traders and miners who followed were African American, including one who helped build the first mission in the Northwest. Until after the Civil War, only free Black or escaped slaves came West unless brought by their owners. The entry of the railroad through southern Idaho starting in the 1880s resulted in a number of African Americans settling in Pocatello. Four companies of troops from the 24th Regiment (an African American unit) were sent to Idaho 1899 to maintain order during the Coeur d'Alene mining strikes. The 1900 Idaho census listed 940 African Americans.
At one time, during the Gold Rush of the early 1800s, Idaho's population was one-quarter Chinese. By 1870, a majority of all Idaho miners were Chinese.
In the mid-1800s, as with other western states, most early Idaho settlers fled the East to escape what they saw as officially-sanctioned harassment of individuals for their beliefs. This was true of Mormons fleeing persecution and Union and Rebel supporters desperately seeking to flee the Civil War.
During the 1890s, there were several thousand Japanese laborers constructing the railroad through Idaho.
In 1896, Idaho became the fourth state in the nation to give women the right to vote. The territorial legislature had come close to giving women the right to vote as early as 1869. In 1867, the territorial legislature passed a statute making Idaho a community property state. It was not until the turn of the century that women in more than a handful of states had equal rights to family assets. In 1972, Idaho became the first state in the nation to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment.
Between 1900 and 1920 a large number of Basque immigrants came to Idaho from the Pyrenees to work as sheepherders. Today, Boise has the largest Basque community in the United States.
Idaho was the first state in the nation to elect a Jewish governor. Moses Alexander was elected in 1914 and re-elected in 1916.
In 1990, Larry EchoHawk was the first Native American to be elected attorney general of any state in the United States.
Idaho’s American Indian Communities
Coeur d’Alene Tribe
Translated from French, the name "Coeur d’Alene" came from the French fur traders and trappers who first encountered the Schitsu'umish Indians. The term actually means "heart of the awl" referring to the sharpness of tribal member trading skills exhibited in their dealings with fur traders. The nickname stuck. One Frenchman even described the tribe as "the greatest traders in the world."
The Coeur d’Alene’s tribal homeland includes almost five million acres of what are now northern Idaho, eastern Washington and western Montana. Unlike the tribes of the plains, the Coeur d'Alenes were not nomadic. Coeur d'Alene Indian villages were established along the Coeur d'Alene, St. Joe, Clark Fork and Spokane rivers. These tribes traded with neighboring tribes and with many tribes far away on the Pacific coast.
Ancient trade routes connected the Coeur d'Alenes with the Nez Perce, the Shoshones and the Bannocks to the south and southeast. To the east were the tribes of the Great Plains and the vast herds of buffalo. With the coming of horses, young Coeur d'Alene men journeyed east to hunt buffalo. However these journeys were not necessary for survival. They were viewed as adventures and even rites of passage for youth who would emerge into manhood and into leadership roles. All ancient tribal trade routes and paths remain today. In fact, those very same routes are still used all across the country and are called interstate highways.
Duck Valley Shoshone-Paiute Tribes
The Duck Valley Indian Reservation is home to approximately 900 of 1,700 tribal members of the Shoshone-Paiute. Located 96 miles north of Elko on the high desert in northeastern Nevada and southwestern Idaho, a mix of Western Shoshone, Northern and Malheur Paiute Indians represent the tribe. Total acreage includes 289,819 acres of tribal land 144,274 acres in Elko County, Nev. and 145,545 acres in Owyhee County, Idaho. There are also 3,981.68 acres of public land at Wildhorse Reservoir.
While a large portion of land is dedicated to agriculture, the tribe's primary source of income is from the sale of fishing permits in its two large reservoirs. The operation of a marina on one of its lakes and the sale of grazing permits for its 260,000 acres of range land provide additional income for the tribe. Other limited employment available for residents can be found at several small, tribal-owned businesses including a laundromat, general store, café and gas station.
Nez Perce Tribe
Nez Perce is a misnomer given to the tribe by French-Canadian fur trappers. The French translate it as "pierced nose." Even though the Nez Perce didn't pierce their noses, the name remained and today it is pronounced "Nezz Purse". Ni Mii Pu (Ni-MEE-Poo) is what tribal members call themselves. It means "The People."
When the weary and hungry Lewis and Clark Expedition encountered the Nez Perce on the Weippe Prairie in 1805, the Ni Mii Pu chose to help the explorers survive. They fed and refreshed them, helped build canoes and provided directions to the Pacific Ocean.
Today the Nez Perce Reservation in Idaho totals about 138,000 acres. Approximately 1,800 of the 3,100 enrolled tribal members live on the reservation itself. The nine-member Nez Perce Tribal Executive Committee is the governing body for the reservation.
Shoshone and Bannock Tribe
In eastern Idaho along Interstate 1-15 and 1-86 lies the 544,000-acre Fort Hall Indian Reservation on a small part of the land that the Shoshone and Bannock Indians have lived on for more than 10,000 years.
Before recorded history, the Shoshone and Bannock originally roamed the areas of what are now the states of Wyoming, Utah, Nevada and Idaho. In their search for food they hunted, gathered and fished for salmon. Horses introduced in the early 1700s allowed some groups to travel great distances in pursuit of buffalo.
A Presidential Executive Order established the 1.8 million acre reservation in 1867 but a survey error reduced the size of the Reservation to 1.2 million acres in 1872. Later, encroachments reduced the reservation to its present size.
The first white men to explore the West were the trappers and explorers. Sacajawea, a Lemhi Shoshone, accompanied Lewis and Clark to the Pacific Ocean in 1805 and back in 1806. Visit the Sacajawea Interpretive, Cultural and Education Center in Salmon and the Fort Hall Museum in Fort Hall, ID.
Salish Tribe
The Flathead Indian Reservation (1,244,000 acres) is home to the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes. In this confederation the Salish and Pend d'Oreilles members formed one tribe and the Kootenai another. The tribal headquarters are in Pablo, Mont.
The traditional Salish and Kootenai hunted buffalo on the Great Plains as well as deer, elk and other wild game in western Mont. A variety of plant foods such as bitterroot, camas, moss, wild onions, Indian potatoes and serviceberries were gathered during their seasons and preserved for later use.
North Central Idaho
Idaho’s history is deeply intertwined with the American Indians who first inhabited this land. Experience the history of Idaho’s American Indians by visiting the Nez Perce National Historical Park and Trail. The historical park and museum pays tribute to the lives and legacy of the people of the Nez Perce Tribe. Originally developed as a Nez Perce mission location, two years after missionaries Henry and Eliza Spalding settled on Lapwai Creek in 1836, today this site serves as National Park Service headquarters and contains a major interpretive center to explain Nez Perce history. The park consists of 38 sites scattered across four states and is the only national park that celebrates a people instead of a place. It contains over 5,000 historic photographs and 24 historic sites that tell the story of the Nez Perce people. Visitors can also view a movie about the Nez Perce culture and history.
For a truly all-encompassing history of Idaho, stop along the Lewis and Clark Trail. Relive the steps of the historic Lewis and Clark Expedition with the Riverside Tepee and Canoe Camp where you will enjoy Lewis and Clark history, Native American historical and cultural activities, expedition re-enactments, special events and hands-on activities with American Indian staff. Experience longboat river tours, guided fishing trips, kayaks and canoes.
Silver Valley Mining History
Northern Idaho is filled with history and stories from the days of the big mining era. Experience this look back in time with a trip to the Silver Valley insluitend Wallace, Murray, Prichard and Kellogg.
Until recently, mining was the lifeblood of Wallace. Established in 1892 Wallace served as supply center for one of the largest silver producing areas in the world in the late 1800s. Today the entire town is on the National Register of Historic Places. The Northern Pacific Depot - an architectural gem - and the Coeur d'Alene District Mining Museum serve as interpretive centers for regional history. The Oasis Bordello Museum provides a more "colorful perspective" of the town's past and the Sierra Silver Mine gives a good feel for the life of an underground miner.
Located near Wallace in the Idaho Panhandle, Murray and Prichard also feature the history of the early mines that put Idaho on the map. Travel to Murray to see the famous Spragpole Museum Restaurant & Bar along with the Bedroom Gold Mine Bar.
Next, travel southwest to Kellogg where kids will enjoy panning for their own gold on the Crystal Gold Mine Tour. This 30-minute tour takes visitors deep inside this old mine which, after miner Tom Irwin blasted the mountain away to hide the mine’s entrance in 1882, lay hidden to the world for more than 100 years. Visitors experience a time gone by witnessing Tom’s old mine car and tools inside. Paved walking paths make it easy for all ages to get around.
Southeastern Idaho
For a history trip the kids will not forget, a tour of southeastern Idaho is a must. Start out at Fort Hall in Pocatello, a replica of the historic facility that served pioneer travelers along the Oregon Trail. Enter the massive wooden gates and wander through Company Hall, Frontier Room, Indian Room, Blacksmith, and Carpenter's Room. A covered wagon and tepee enhance the outdoor exhibit. Web: www.forthall.net or 208-234-1795.
If the kids are ready for a break, travel southeast to Lava Hot Springs. For centuries many Indian tribes called these natural hot water springs "healing waters." Geologists theorize the water has been a consistent 110 degrees for at least 50 million years. Today the State of Idaho maintains this world-famous resort complex year-round, offering hot mineral baths at 110 degrees Fahrenheit that are sulfur and odor-free. In addition to the hot pools there is a free form Olympic-size swimming and diving pool for summer fun.
Continuing southeast to Montpelier, stop at The National Oregon/California Trail Center which offers an excellent, structured educational experience about the largest mass migration in American history, the Oregon Trail. Ride in a computer-controlled covered wagon. Journey the trails with experienced guides in period costumes.
Finally if your family is a Napoleon Dynamite fan, visit the movie location site in Preston and check out specific places and items such as Napoleon’s house, Preston High School and Uncle Rico’s van.
Sacajawea Heritage Days celebrates the assistance Sacajawea, a native of the Lemhi valley, gave to the Lewis and Clark Expedition as it passed through the Lemhi Valley. The event features the annual Great Salmon Valley Balloonfest with hot air balloons, arts and crafts reminiscent of the period, breakfast, cattlemen's barbeque, a concert, talent stage, Lewis & Clark artifact replicas, tribal dancing and an ice cream social.
Effects of the California Gold Rush
No one could have imagined the far-reaching implications of the discovery of gold at Sutter’s Mill in Northern California.
On 24 January 1848, James Wilson Marshall found the first few pieces of gold in Coloma, California. It did not take long for more than 300 000 people, men and women alike, to migrate west in the hopes of making their fortune panning gold. The effects of the California Gold Rush are many and far-reaching they did not cease to be felt when the furor finally died down, but continue to be felt to this day
California Becomes a State
Though California was a Mexican possession when the year began, the land was ceded to the United States early in 1848. Though initially content to change nothing about the system of law or government in place in the region, it soon became evident that something had to be changed – little could be done to maintain roads, oversee education, or provide other essential services.
Though Congress was given recommendations to designate California as a US territory, nothing was done in this regard before the Gold Rush. However, once gold was discovered and the Californian economy began to really take off, it did not take long for the government officials to recognize the advantages of allowing California to join the union, and in 1850 it was accepted as a free state.
Effects of the Gold Rush on Settlements
As forty-niners poured into California, the towns and villages quickly filled up, resulting in the growth of already established cities, such as San Francisco, and the creation of new hastily-developed settlements. While many of these settlements developed into permanent cities still surviving today, many were abandoned at the close of the Gold Rush. Today, numerous ghost towns dating from the Gold Rush can be found scattered across California.
Farming settlements were also greatly affected by the California Gold Rush. On the one hand, the newly created settlements encroached on the farmland, and mining practices compromised the quality of the land. On the other hand, however, many farming communities enjoyed increased economic prosperity during the Gold Rush, thanks to the large number of miners who could not produce food for themselves.
Natives and the California Gold Rush
When gold was first discovered in California, the Native Americans of the area did not oppose the mining, and did not feel strong negative effects. At first, the white miners hired the Native Americans to pan the gold for them (though some did work independently). However, as news of the discovery spread and miners began to arrive from other regions, particularly Oregon, relations between the miners and the natives began to sour. Hostilities were soon opened, and the two groups openly attacked each other.
Furthermore, the excitement created by the discovery of gold, and the sheer volume of immigrants to the area, led to complete disregard for prior treaties and land reservations. It did not take long for the newcomers to push their way into the natives’ land, forcing them to move. Many of those who did not move faced further hostilities. In the end, thousands of natives were killed or forced out of California, leaving only a few in a region that at one point had had one of the largest populations of Native Americans in the United States.
Other Effects of the California Gold Rush
These are by no means the only short- or long-term effects of the 1848 Gold Rush. The creation of mines and settlements led to widespread destruction of habitat and, consequently, the destruction of thousands of animals. (This, of course, played a role in the destruction of Native Americans, as these animals were a major food source.) The need to transport people and products to and from the newly settled region led to the creation of infrastructure, particularly transportation routes, previously unknown in California. This helped to reaffirm the United States’ east-west ties.
There was no way for the first participants in the California Gold Rush to know what was going to happen in the years to come. The prosperity it initiated helped convince those in power to admit California to the Union settlements grew while others were created and subsequently abandoned and Native Americans faced almost total annihilation. Like any major event in history, the California Gold Rush had both its positive and negative effects, and these have been felt by thousands of people, even to this day.
