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Wikipedia vertel my dat sekere kinders van keisers gedurende die Heian -periode gedegradeer is (verwyder uit die koninklike geslag) en aan Taira sowel as Minamoto "clans" toegewys is.
Hoe het dit gewerk?
- Was daar 'n spesiale rede om mense aan mekaar toe te ken bo die ander?
- Sou clans die belangrikste sosiale identiteit vir hul lede wees?
- Het hulle spesiale dienste gelewer/benodig?
- Hoe het die generasie -komponent (bv. Saga vs. Seiwa Genji) die situasie beïnvloed? Het Saga en Seiwa Genji byvoorbeeld albei as Minamoto geïdentifiseer en was hulle dus meer geneig om met mekaar saam te werk as met ander stamme?
Gempei Oorlog
Gion shôja no kane no koe, shogyô mujô no hibiki ari. Shara sôju no hana no iro, shôsha hissui no koto wari wo arawasu. Ogoreru hito mo hisashikarazu, tada haru no yoru no yume no gotoshi. Ons kan nie eers meer kyk nie, maar dit is ook nie 'n goeie idee nie.
Die geluid van die Gion Shôja -tempelklokke weerspieël die verganklikheid van alle dinge, die kleur van die salablomme onthul die waarheid dat om te floreer, is om te val. Die hoogmoediges verduur uiteindelik nie die magtige val nie, maar dit is nie meer as stof voor die wind nie.
- Datums: 1180-1185
- Combatants: Minamoto -clan (en bondgenote) versus Taira -clan (en bondgenote)
- Uitkoms: Minamoto -oorwinning Taira -stam het grootliks uitgewis
- Japannees: 源 平 合 戦 (Genpei kassen)
Die Genpei-oorlog, geveg tussen die Minamoto- en Taira-samurai-clans in 1180-1185, dui op die einde van die heerskappy deur 'n keiserlike hof wat deur Taira gedomineer is, en word kort daarna gevolg deur die oprigting van die Kamakura-shogunaat as sodanig, dit verteenwoordig die val van die Taira en die opkoms van die Minamoto, die einde van die Heian -periode en die begin van die Kamakura -periode, en die grens tussen die klassieke tydperk van aristokraat/hofregering en die Middeleeuse periode van samoerai -bewind.
Die oorlog kry sy naam aan die op-yomi of "Chinese styl" voorlesings van die name van die twee stamme - Genji en Heike (of Heishi) wat onderskeidelik "Minamoto -stam" en "Taira -huis" (of "Taira -stam") beteken.
Die gebeurtenisse van die oorlog is die bekendste in die epos oorvertel Die verhaal van die Heike, wat 'n tyd lank as 'n mondelinge tradisie deur reisende musikante vertel is voordat dit vir die eerste keer in 1371 neergeskryf is. Talle Noh-, Kabuki- en poppespeletjies, sowel as tallose skilderye en ander kulturele skeppings maak gebruik van hierdie verhale, wat gegroei het tot 'n legende.
Inhoud
Jōmon art Wysig
Die eerste setlaars van Japan was die Jōmon-mense (ongeveer 10 500-ongeveer 300 v.C.), [3] vernoem na die koordmerke wat die oppervlaktes van hul kleivate versier het, was nomadiese jagter-versamelaars wat later georganiseerde boerdery beoefen en stede gebou het met bevolkings van honderde indien nie duisende nie. Hulle bou eenvoudige huise van hout en grasdak in vlak erdputte om warmte uit die grond te verskaf. Hulle het uiters versierde pottebakkies gemaak, met klei beeldjies genoem dogū, en kristal juwele.
Vroeë Jōmon -tydperk Wysig
Gedurende die vroeë Jōmon-tydperk (5000-2500 vC) het [3] dorpe begin ontdek en gewone alledaagse voorwerpe gevind, soos keramiekpotte wat bedoel is vir kookwater. Die potte wat gedurende hierdie tyd gevind is, het 'n plat bodem en uitgebreide ontwerpe van materiaal soos bamboes. Boonop was 'n ander belangrike vonds die vroeë Jōmon -beeldjies wat as vrugbaarheidsvoorwerpe gebruik kon word as gevolg van die borste en swelling van die heupe. [3]
Middel -Jōmon -tydperk Redigeer
Die Midde-Jōmon-tydperk (2500-1500 v.G.J.), [3] het op baie maniere teenoor die vroeë Jōmon-tydperk gestaan. Hierdie mense het minder nomadies geword en hulle in dorpies begin vestig. Hulle het nuttige gereedskap geskep om die voedsel wat hulle versamel en gejag het, te verwerk, wat hulle makliker gemaak het. Deur die talle esteties aangename keramiek wat gedurende hierdie tydperk gevind is, is dit duidelik dat hierdie mense 'n stabiele ekonomie en meer vrye tyd gehad het om pragtige stukke te vestig. Daarbenewens het die mense van die Midde -Jōmon -tydperk van hul vorige voorouers verskil, omdat hulle vate volgens hul funksie ontwikkel het, byvoorbeeld dat hulle potte vervaardig het om items te stoor. [3] Die versierings op hierdie vate het realistieser geword in teenstelling met die vroeë keramiek van Jōmon. In die algemeen het die produksie van werke nie net gedurende hierdie tydperk toegeneem nie, maar hierdie individue het dit meer dekoratief en naturalisties gemaak. [3]
Laat en finale Jōmon -tydperk Wysig
Gedurende die laat en finale Jōmon-periode (1500-300 v.C.), [3] het die weer kouer begin word, wat hulle genoodsaak het om van die berge af weg te beweeg. Die belangrikste voedselbron gedurende hierdie tyd was vis, wat hulle hul visvoorrade en gereedskap verbeter het. Hierdie vordering was 'n baie belangrike prestasie gedurende hierdie tyd. Boonop het die aantal vaartuie grootliks toegeneem, wat moontlik kon aflei dat elke huis 'n eie beeldjie daarin gehad het. Alhoewel verskillende vaartuie tydens die laat en finale Jōmon -tydperk gevind is, is hierdie stukke beskadig gevind, wat kan aandui dat hulle dit vir rituele gebruik het. Daarbenewens is daar ook beeldjies gevind en word gekenmerk deur hul vlesige lywe en brilagtige oë. [3]
Dogū ("erde figuur") is klein menslike en dierlike beeldjies wat gedurende die latere deel van die Jōmon -periode gemaak is. [4] Hulle is gemaak in die hele Japan, behalwe Okinawa. [4] Sommige geleerdes teoretiseer die dogū het as beeld van mense opgetree, wat 'n soort simpatieke magie openbaar het. [5] Dogū is gemaak van klei en is klein, tipies 10 tot 30 cm hoog. [6] Die meeste figuurtjies lyk as 'n vroulike model en het groot oë, klein middellyf en breë heupe. [4] Hulle word deur baie beskou as verteenwoordigend van godinne. Baie het 'n groot buik wat verband hou met swangerskap, wat daarop dui dat die Jomon hulle as moedergodinne beskou het. [6]
Yayoi art Edit
Die volgende golf immigrante was die Yayoi -mense, vernoem na die distrik in Tokio waar die oorblyfsels van hul nedersettings eers gevind is. Hierdie mense, wat ongeveer 300 vC in Japan aangekom het, [7] het hul kennis gebring oor vleisrysverbouing, die vervaardiging van koperwapens en bronsklokke (dōtaku) en keramiek wat deur die oond gestook word.
'N Dōtaku -klok uit die Yayoi -periode, 3de eeu nC
Bronsspieël opgegrawe in Tsubai-otsukayama kofun, Yamashiro, Kyoto
Karmasfles uit die Yayoi -periode
Yayoi -opbergkruik van 500 BCE - 200 CE
Kofun art Edit
Die derde fase in die Japannese voorgeskiedenis, die Kofun -periode (ongeveer 300 - 710 nC), [3] verteenwoordig 'n verandering van die Yayoi -kultuur, wat te danke is aan interne ontwikkeling of eksterne krag. Hierdie periode is veral opvallend vanweë die grafkultuur en ander artefakte soos bronspieëls en klei -beelde wat genoem word haniwa wat buite hierdie grafte opgerig is. Gedurende die Kofun -periode het die kenmerke van hierdie grafte ontwikkel van kleiner grafte wat op heuwels en rante opgerig is tot veel groter grafte wat op plat grond gebou is. [8] Die grootste graf in Japan, die graf van keiser Nintoku, huisves 46 grafheuwels en is gevorm soos 'n sleutelgat, [9] 'n duidelike kenmerk wat in latere Kofun -grafte gevind word. [8]
Asuka en Nara art Edit
Gedurende die Asuka- en Nara -tydperke, so genoem omdat die setel van die Japannese regering in die Asuka -vallei was van 542 tot 645 [3] en in die stad Nara tot 784, het die eerste beduidende toestroming van die kontinentale Asiatiese kultuur in Japan plaasgevind.
Die oordrag van Boeddhisme het die aanvanklike stukrag vir kontakte tussen China en Japan gelewer. Die Japannese herken die fasette van die Chinese kultuur wat met winsgewendheid in hul eie opgeneem kan word: 'n stelsel vir die omskakeling van idees en klanke in die skryf van historiografie komplekse regeringsteorieë, soos 'n effektiewe burokrasie en, die belangrikste vir die kunste, nuwe tegnologieë, nuwe geboue tegnieke, meer gevorderde bronsgietmetodes, en nuwe tegnieke en media vir skildery.
Gedurende die sewende en agtste eeu was die ontwikkeling van Boeddhisme egter die belangrikste fokus in die kontak tussen Japan en die Asiatiese vasteland. Nie alle geleerdes stem saam oor die belangrike datums en die gepaste name wat van toepassing is op verskillende tydperke tussen 552, die amptelike datum van die bekendstelling van Boeddhisme in Japan en 784, toe die Japannese hoofstad van Nara oorgeplaas is nie. Die mees algemene benamings is die Suiko -tydperk, 552-645 die Hakuhō -periode, 645-710, en die Tenpyō -periode, 710-784.
Pagoda en Kondō by Hōryū-ji, 8ste eeu
Die vroegste Japannese beeldhouwerke van die Boeddha dateer uit die 6de en 7de eeu. [10] Hulle is uiteindelik afkomstig van die 1ste tot 3de eeu nC Grieks-Boeddhistiese kuns van Gandhara, gekenmerk deur vloeiende rokpatrone en realistiese weergawe, [11] waarop Chinese artistieke kenmerke aangebring is. Nadat die Chinese Boeddhistiese kuns in die Noordelike Wei 'n Koreaanse skiereiland binnegedring het, is Boeddhistiese ikone deur verskillende immigrantegroepe na Japan gebring. [12] Veral die halfsitende Maitreya-vorm is aangepas in 'n hoogs ontwikkelde antieke Griekse kunsstyl wat na Japan oorgedra is, soos blyk uit die Kōryū-ji Miroku Bosatsu en die Chūgū-ji Siddhartha standbeelde. [13] Baie historici beeld Korea uit as 'n blote oordrag van Boeddhisme. [14] Die Drie Koninkryke, en veral Baekje, was 'n belangrike rol in die bekendstelling en vorming van 'n Boeddhistiese tradisie in Japan in 538 of 552. [15] Dit illustreer die eindpunt van die Silk Road -oordrag van kuns tydens die eerste paar eeue van ons era. Ander voorbeelde kan gevind word in die ontwikkeling van die ikonografie van die Japanse Fūjin Wind God, [16] die Niō-voogde, [17] en die byna-klassieke blompatrone in tempelversierings. [18]
Die vroegste Boeddhistiese strukture wat nog in Japan bestaan, en die oudste houtgeboue in die Verre Ooste word gevind by die Hōryū-ji in die suidweste van Nara. Dit is eers in die vroeë 7de eeu gebou as die privaat tempel van kroonprins Shōtoku, en bestaan uit 41 onafhanklike geboue. Die belangrikste, die belangrikste eredienssaal, of Kondō (Golden Hall), en Gojū-no-tō (Pagode met vyf verdiepings), staan in die middel van 'n oop gebied omring deur 'n dakklooster. Die Kondō, in die styl van Chinese aanbiddingsale, is 'n twee-verdieping struktuur van post-en-balk konstruksie, bedek deur 'n irimoyaof dakdak van keramiekteëls.
Binne die Kondō, op 'n groot reghoekige platform, is 'n paar van die belangrikste beelde van die tydperk. Die sentrale beeld is 'n Shaka Trinity (623), die historiese Boeddha geflankeer deur twee bodhisattvas, beeldhouwerk in brons gegiet deur die beeldhouer Tori Busshi (floreer vroeg in die 7de eeu) ter ere van die onlangs oorlede prins Shōtoku. Op die vier hoeke van die platform is die Guardian Kings of the Four Directions, omstreeks 650 in hout gesny. Ook by Hōryū-ji is die Tamamushi-heiligdom, 'n hout-replika van 'n Kondō, wat op 'n hoë houtbasis is versier met figuurskilderye uitgevoer in 'n medium minerale pigmente gemeng met lak.
Tempelbou in die 8ste eeu was gefokus rondom die Tōdai-ji in Nara. Die Tōdaiji is gebou as die hoofkwartier vir 'n netwerk van tempels in elk van die provinsies, en is die mees ambisieuse godsdienstige kompleks wat in die vroeë eeue van Boeddhistiese aanbidding in Japan opgerig is. Die gepaste Boeddha van 16,2 m (voltooi 752) is in die belangrikste Boeddha-saal vasgemaak, of Daibutsuden, is 'n Rushana Boeddha, die figuur wat die essensie van Boeddha verteenwoordig, net soos die Tōdaiji die sentrum verteenwoordig vir die keiserlik geborgde Boeddhisme en die verspreiding daarvan in Japan. Slegs 'n paar fragmente van die oorspronklike standbeeld oorleef, en die huidige saal en sentrale Boeddha is rekonstruksies uit die Edo -tydperk.
'N Aantal sekondêre sale is om die Daibutsuden op 'n liggies skuins heuwel gegroepeer: die Hokke-dō (Lotus Sutra Hall), met sy vernaamste beeld, die Fukukenjaku Kannon (不 空 羂 索 観 音 立 像, die gewildste bodhisattva), gemaak van droë lak (doek gedoop in lak en gevorm oor 'n houtanker) Kaidanin (戒壇 院, Ordination Hall) met sy manjifieke kleibeelde van die Four Guardian Kings en die stoorkamer, genaamd die Shōsōin. Hierdie laaste struktuur is van groot belang as 'n kunshistoriese kas, want daarin word die gereedskap gestoor wat in 752 tydens die inwydingsplegtigheid van die tempel gebruik is, die oogopeningritueel vir die Rushana-beeld, sowel as regeringsdokumente en baie sekulêre voorwerpe wat deur die keiserlike familie besit word.
Choukin (of chōkin), die kuns van metaalgravering of beeldhouwerk, het vermoedelik in die Nara -tydperk begin. [19] [20]
Heian art Edit
In 794 is die hoofstad van Japan amptelik oorgeplaas na Heian-kyō (huidige Kyoto), waar dit tot 1868 gebly het. Heian tydperk verwys na die jare tussen 794 en 1185, toe die Kamakura -shogunaat aan die einde van die Genpei -oorlog gestig is. Die tydperk word verder verdeel in die vroeë Heian en die laat Heian, of Fujiwara -era, die sleuteldatum is 894, die jaar waarin keiserlike ambassades in China amptelik gestaak is.
Vroeë Heian -kuns: In reaksie op die groeiende rykdom en mag van die georganiseerde Boeddhisme in Nara, het die priester Kūkai (veral bekend onder sy postume titel Kōbō Daishi, 774–835) na China gereis om Shingon te bestudeer, 'n vorm van Vajrayana -boeddhisme, wat hy in Japan in Japan voorgestel het. 806. Die kern van Shingon -aanbidding is mandalas, diagramme van die geestelike heelal, wat dan die ontwerp van die tempel begin beïnvloed het. Japanse Boeddhistiese argitektuur het ook die stupa, oorspronklik 'n Indiese argitektoniese vorm, in sy pagode in Chinese styl aangeneem.
Die tempels wat vir hierdie nuwe sekte opgerig is, is in die berge gebou, ver weg van die hof en die leke in die hoofstad. Die onreëlmatige topografie van hierdie terreine het Japannese argitekte genoop om die probleme van tempelbou te heroorweeg en sodoende meer inheemse ontwerpselemente te kies. Cypress-basdakke het die van keramiekteëls vervang, houtplanke is in plaas van erdevloere gebruik, en 'n aparte aanbiddingsarea vir die leke is voor die hoof heiligdom aangebring.
Die tempel wat die gees van vroeë Heian Shingon-tempels die beste weerspieël, is die Murō-ji (vroeg in die 9de eeu), diep in 'n stand van sipresbome op 'n berg suidoos van Nara. Die houtbeeld (ook vroeg in die 9de eeu) van Shakyamuni, die 'historiese' Boeddha, vasgelê in 'n sekondêre gebou by die Murō-ji, is tipies van die vroeë Heiaanse beeldhouwerk, met sy swaar lyf, bedek met dik gordynvoue wat in die honpa-shiki (rollende golf) styl en sy sober, teruggetrokke gesigsuitdrukking.
Fujiwara kuns: In die Fujiwara -periode het Boeddhisme van Suiwer Land, wat maklike redding gebied het deur geloof in Amida (die Boeddha van die Westerse Paradys), gewild geword. Hierdie tydperk is vernoem na die Fujiwara -familie, toe die magtigste in die land, wat as regente vir die keiser regeer het en in werklikheid burgerlike diktators geword het. Terselfdertyd ontwikkel die adel van Kyoto 'n samelewing wat toegewy is aan elegante estetiese strewes. Hulle wêreld was so veilig en mooi dat hulle nie kon dink dat die paradys baie anders was nie. Hulle het 'n nuwe vorm van Boeddha -saal geskep, die Amida -saal, wat die sekulêre met die godsdienstige meng, en een of meer Boeddha -beelde huisves in 'n struktuur wat op die herenhuise van die adel lyk.
Die Hō-ō-dō (Phoenix Hall, voltooi 1053) van die Byōdō-in, 'n tempel in Uji in die suidooste van Kyoto, is 'n voorbeeld van die Fujiwara Amida-sale. Dit bestaan uit 'n hoof reghoekige struktuur, geflankeer deur twee L-vormige vleuelkorridors en 'n stertgang, aan die rand van 'n groot kunsmatige dam. Binne is 'n enkele goue beeld van Amida (ongeveer 1053) op 'n hoë platform geïnstalleer. Die Amida -beeldhouwerk is uitgevoer deur Jōchō, wat 'n nuwe kanon met verhoudings en 'n nuwe tegniek gebruik het (yosegi), waarin verskeie stukke hout soos skulpe uitgekap en van binne verbind is. Op die mure van die saal is klein reliëfgrafieke van hemelse, die gasheer het Amida vergesel toe hy van die Westelike Paradys afstam om die siele van gelowiges op die oomblik van dood te versamel en in lotusbloeisels na die Paradys te vervoer. Raigo skilderye op die houtdeure van die Hō-ō-dō, wat die afkoms van die Amida Boeddha uitbeeld, is 'n vroeë voorbeeld van Yamato-e, skildery in Japannese styl, en bevat voorstellings van die natuurskoon rondom Kyoto.
E-maki: In die laaste eeu van die Heian -periode, die horisontale, geïllustreerde narratiewe handrol, bekend as e-maki (絵 巻, aangesteek "prentrol"), na vore gekom. Uit ongeveer 1130, die Genji Monogatari Emaki, 'n beroemde geïllustreerde Verhaal van Genji verteenwoordig die vroegste yamato-e handrol wat nog oorleef het, en een van die hoogtepunte van die Japannese skildery. Die roman is geskryf oor die jaar 1000 deur Murasaki Shikibu, 'n inwagende dame vir die keiserin Shōshi, en handel oor die lewe en liefdes van Genji en die wêreld van die Heian-hof na sy dood. Die kunstenaars uit die 12de eeu van die e-maki weergawe het 'n stelsel van beeldkonvensies ontwerp wat die emosionele inhoud van elke toneel visueel weergee. In die tweede helfte van die eeu het 'n ander, lewendiger styl van deurlopende narratiewe illustrasie gewild geword. Die Ban Dainagon Ekotoba (laat 12de eeu), 'n boekrol wat handel oor 'n intrige by die hof, beklemtoon figure in aktiewe beweging wat uitgebeeld word in vinnig uitgevoerde kwashale en dun, maar lewendige kleure.
E-maki dien ook as 'n paar van die vroegste en grootste voorbeelde van die otoko-e ("mansprente") en onna-e ("vroueprente") skilderstyle. Daar is baie fyn verskille in die twee style, wat 'n beroep doen op die estetiese voorkeure van die geslagte. Maar miskien is die verskille in die onderwerp die maklikste opvallend. Onna-e, weergegee deur die Tale of Genji -handboek, handel gewoonlik oor die hoflewe, veral die hofdames, en oor romantiese temas. Otoko-e het dikwels historiese gebeure opgeteken, veral veldslae. Die beleg van die Sanjō -paleis (1160), uitgebeeld in die gedeelte "Nagaanval op die Sanjō -paleis" van die Heiji Monogatari -handrol, is 'n bekende voorbeeld van hierdie styl.
Kamakura kuns Redigeer
In 1180 het daar 'n oorlog uitgebreek tussen die twee magtigste vegtersklans: die Taira en die Minamoto vyf jaar later het die Minamoto as oorwinnaars uit die stryd getree en 'n de facto regeringsetel gevestig in die kusdorp Kamakura, waar dit tot 1333 gebly het. magsverskuiwing van die adel na die krygerklas, die kunste moes 'n nuwe gehoor tevrede stel: mans wat toegewy is aan die vaardighede van oorlogvoering, priesters wat toegewyd is om Boeddhisme beskikbaar te stel vir ongeletterde gewone mense, en konserwatiewes, die adel en sommige lede van die priesterskap wat betreur die afnemende mag van die hof. Realisme, 'n populariserende neiging en 'n klassieke herlewing kenmerk dus die kuns van die Kamakura -tydperk. In die Kamakura -periode het Kyoto en Nara die sentrums van artistieke produksie en hoë kultuur gebly.
Beeldhouwerk: Die Kei -skool van beeldhouers, veral Unkei, het 'n nuwe, meer realistiese beeldstyl geskep. Die twee Niō-beskermingsbeelde (1203) in die Great South Gate van die Tōdai-ji in Nara illustreer Unkei se dinamiese bo-realistiese styl. Die beelde, ongeveer 8 m lank, is in 'n tydperk van ongeveer drie maande uit verskeie blokke gesny, 'n prestasie wat dui op 'n ontwikkelde ateljeestelsel van ambagsmanne wat onder leiding van 'n meester -beeldhouer werk. Unkei se veelverchroomde houtbeelde (1208, Kōfuku-ji, Nara) van twee Indiese wysgere, Muchaku en Seshin, die legendariese stigters van die Hossō-sekte, is een van die mees volmaakte realistiese werke van die tydperk wat deur Unkei weergegee is, hulle is merkwaardig geïndividualiseerd en geloofwaardige beelde. Een van die bekendste werke van hierdie tydperk is 'n Amitabha-triade (voltooi in 1195), in Jōdo-ji in Ono, geskep deur Kaikei, die opvolger van Unkei.
Kalligrafie en skildery: Die Kegon Engi Emaki, die geïllustreerde geskiedenis van die stigting van die Kegon -sekte, is 'n uitstekende voorbeeld van die popularisering van die neiging in Kamakura -skilderye. Die Kegon -sekte, een van die belangrikste in die Nara -tydperk, het tydens die opkoms van die suiwer land -sektes swaar gekry. Na die Genpei-oorlog (1180–1185) het priester Myōe van Kōzan-ji probeer om die sekte te laat herleef en ook 'n toevlug te bied vir vroue wat deur die oorlog weduwee was. Die vroue van samoerai is ontmoedig om meer te leer as 'n sillabêre stelsel om klanke en idees te transkribeer (sien kana), en die meeste was nie in staat om tekste te lees wat Chinese ideograwe (kanji) gebruik nie.
Dus, die Kegon Engi Emaki kombineer teksgedeeltes, geskryf met 'n maksimum van leesbare lettergrepe, en illustrasies wat die dialoog tussen karakters langs die sprekers bevat, 'n tegniek wat vergelykbaar is met kontemporêre strokiesprente. Die plot van die e-maki, die lewens van die twee Koreaanse priesters wat die Kegon -sekte gestig het, word vinnig gevul en gevul met fantastiese prestasies, soos 'n reis na die paleis van die Ocean King en 'n aangrypende maverhaal. [ verduideliking nodig ]
'N Werk in 'n meer konserwatiewe trant is die geïllustreerde weergawe van Murasaki Shikibu se dagboek. E-maki weergawes van haar roman word steeds geproduseer, maar die adel, afgestem op die nuwe belangstelling in realisme, maar tog nostalgies vir die afgelope dae van rykdom en mag, het die dagboek herleef en geïllustreer om die glans van die tyd van die skrywer te herwin. Een van die mooiste gedeeltes illustreer die episode waarin Murasaki Shikibu speels gevange gehou word in haar kamer deur twee jong hofdienaars, terwyl net buite maanlig skyn op die mossige oewers van 'n rivier in die keiserlike tuin.
Muromachi art Edit
Gedurende die Muromachi -periode (1338–1573), ook die Ashikaga -periode genoem, het daar 'n ingrypende verandering in die Japannese kultuur plaasgevind. Die Ashikaga -stam het beheer oor die shogunaat oorgeneem en sy hoofkwartier na Kyoto, na die Muromachi -distrik van die stad, verskuif. Met die terugkeer van die regering na die hoofstad, het die popularisering van die neigings van die Kamakura -tydperk tot 'n einde gekom, en het kulturele uitdrukking 'n meer aristokratiese, elitistiese karakter gekry. Zen -boeddhisme, die Ch'an -sekte wat tradisioneel in die 6de eeu in China gestig is, is vir die tweede keer in Japan ingebring en het wortel geskiet.
Skildery: As gevolg van sekulêre ondernemings en handelsmissies na China wat deur Zen -tempels georganiseer is, is baie Chinese skilderye en kunsvoorwerpe in Japan ingevoer en het dit 'n groot invloed gehad op Japannese kunstenaars wat vir Zen -tempels en die shogunaat werk. Hierdie invoer het nie net die onderwerp van skildery verander nie, maar dit het ook die kleurgebruik aangepas wat die helder kleure van Yamato-e op die Chinese monochrome van die skildery opgelewer het, waar skilderye oor die algemeen slegs swart en wit of verskillende kleure het. 'n enkele kleur.
Kenmerkend van die vroeë Muromachi-skildery is die uitbeelding deur die priester-skilder Kao (aktiewe vroeë 15de eeu) van die legendariese monnik Kensu (Hsien-tzu in Chinees) op die oomblik dat hy verligting verkry het. Hierdie tipe skildery is uitgevoer met vinnige kwashale en 'n minimum aan detail. 'N Katvis met 'n kalebas vang (vroeg in die 15de eeu, Taizō-in, Myōshin-ji, Kyoto), deur die priester-skilder Josetsu (aktief ongeveer 1400), is 'n keerpunt in Muromachi-skildery. Oorspronklik uitgevoer vir 'n laagstaande skerm, is dit weer opgestel as 'n hangrol met inskripsies deur hedendaagse figure hierbo, waarvan een na die skildery in die 'nuwe styl' verwys. Op die voorgrond word 'n man uitgebeeld op die oewer van 'n stroompie wat 'n klein kalebas vashou en na 'n groot katvis kyk. Mis vul die middelgrond, en die agtergrondberge blyk ver in die verte te wees. Daar word algemeen aanvaar dat die 'nuwe styl' van die skildery, wat omstreeks 1413 uitgevoer is, verwys na 'n meer Chinese gevoel van diep ruimte in die prentvlak.
Die voorste kunstenaars van die Muromachi-periode is die priester-skilders Shūbun en Sesshū. Shūbun, 'n monnik by die Kyoto-tempel van Shōkoku-ji, geskep in die skildery Lees in 'n bamboesbos (1446) 'n realistiese landskap met 'n diep resessie in die ruimte. Sesshū kon, anders as die meeste kunstenaars van die tydperk, na China reis en Chinese skilderkuns by die bron bestudeer. Landskap van die vier seisoene (Sansui Chokan c. 1486) is een van die suksesvolste werke van Sesshu, wat 'n voortgesette landskap deur die vier seisoene uitbeeld.
Azuchi-Momoyama kuns Redigeer
In die periode Azuchi - Momoyama (1573–1603) het 'n opeenvolging van militêre leiers, soos Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi en Tokugawa Ieyasu, probeer om vrede en politieke stabiliteit na Japan te bring na 'n era van byna 100 jaar oorlogvoering. Oda, 'n klein hoofman, verkry genoeg krag om in 1568 de facto beheer oor die regering te neem en, vyf jaar later, om die laaste Ashikaga -haelgeweer te verdryf. Hideyoshi neem bevel na die dood van Oda, maar sy planne om oorerflike bewind te vestig, is verydel deur Ieyasu, wat die Tokugawa -shogunaat in 1603 gestig het.
Skildery: Die belangrikste kunsskool in die Momoyama -periode was die van die Kanō -skool, en die grootste innovasie van die tydperk was die formule, ontwikkel deur Kanō Eitoku, vir die skep van monumentale landskappe op die skuifdeure wat 'n kamer omhul. Die versiering van die hoofkamer wat uitkyk op die tuin van die Jukō-in, 'n subtempel van Daitoku-ji ('n Zen-tempel in Kyoto), is miskien die beste voorbeeld van Eitoku se werk. 'N Massiewe ume boom- en tweeling denne word op pare glyskerms in diagonaal teenoorgestelde hoeke uitgebeeld, hul stamme herhaal die vertikale van die hoekpale en hul takke strek na links en regs, wat die aangrensende panele verenig. Eitoku se skerm, Chinese leeus, ook in Kyoto, onthul die vet, helderkleurige skilderstyl wat die samoerai verkies.
Hasegawa Tōhaku, 'n tydgenoot van Eitoku, het 'n ietwat ander en meer dekoratiewe styl vir grootskaalse skermskilderye ontwikkel. In sy Maple skerm (楓 図), nou in die tempel van Chishaku-in (ja: 智 積 院), Kyoto, het hy die stam van die boom in die middel geplaas en die ledemate tot by die rand van die komposisie uitgebrei, wat 'n platter, minder argitektoniese werk as Eitoku, maar 'n visueel pragtige skildery. Sy sesvoudige skerm, Pine Wood (松林 図), is 'n meesterlike weergawe in monochroom ink van 'n bos bome omring met mis.
Kuns van die Edo -tydperk Redigeer
Die Tokugawa -shogunaat het in 1603 onbetwiste beheer oor die regering verkry met 'n verbintenis om vrede en ekonomiese en politieke stabiliteit in die land te bring, en dit was grootliks suksesvol. Die shogunaat het tot 1867 oorleef, toe dit gedwing is om te kapituleer omdat dit nie die druk van Westerse lande kon hanteer om die land oop te maak vir buitelandse handel nie. Een van die belangrikste temas in die Edo -periode was die onderdrukkende beleid van die shogunaat en die pogings van kunstenaars om aan hierdie beperkings te ontsnap. Die belangrikste hiervan was die sluiting van die land vir buitelanders en die toerusting van hul kulture, en die oplegging van streng gedragskodes wat elke aspek van die lewe beïnvloed, die klere wat 'n mens gedra het, die persoon wat 'n mens getroud het en die aktiwiteite wat 'n mens kon of moes nie agtervolg nie.
In die beginjare van die Edo -periode was die volle impak van Tokugawa -beleid egter nog nie gevoel nie, en 'n paar van Japan se beste uitdrukkings in argitektuur en skilderkuns is gemaak: Katsura -paleis in Kyoto en die skilderye van Tawaraya Sōtatsu, pionier van die Rinpa skool.
Houtblok druk: Houtblokafdrukke is oorspronklik gebruik om Boeddhistiese geskrifte in die agtste eeu in Japan te vertaal. Houtblokdruk bestaan uit die gravering van beelde of prentjies op 'n stuk hout, wat dan teen 'n stuk papier gedruk word. In die agtste eeu word houtblok beskou as 'n maklike metode vir die reproduksie van gedrukte teks totdat verdere innovasies toegelaat het dat kleur op papier of beter bekend as Nishik-e afdrukke kon vertaal word. Houtblokdrukwerk was die algemene drukmetode van die elfde tot die negentiende eeu. Nishiki-e-afdrukke vervaardig goedere soos kalenders wat gedurende die Edo-tydperk gereeld aan welgestelde lede van die samelewing verkoop is. In die Edo -periode is hierdie afdrukke gebeure en tonele van prominente akteurs uitgebeeld. Ukiyo het in die vroeë Edo -periode met houtblokdrukwerk verband gehou. Hierdie Ukiyo -skilderye beeld die daaglikse lewens van prominente lede van die samelewing uit. Ukiyo het eers begin met die handgemaakte boekrolle wat die lewe as 'n gewone burger beskryf.
Argitektuur: Die Katsura -losstaande paleis, gebou in nabootsing van die paleis van Genji, bevat 'n groep gebalanseerde geboue wat elemente van klassieke Japannese argitektuur kombineer met vernuwende weergawes. Die hele kompleks word omring deur 'n pragtige tuin met staproetes. Baie van die kragtige daimyōs (feodale here) het 'n Japannese tuin in 'n stroombaan in die land gebou en om die skoonheid meegeding.
Skildery: Sōtatsu het 'n uitstekende dekoratiewe styl ontwikkel deur temas uit die klassieke literatuur te herskep met behulp van briljant gekleurde figure en motiewe uit die natuurlike wêreld teen goudblaaragtergronde. Een van sy beste werke is die paar skerms Die golwe by Matsushima in die Freer Gallery in Washington, DC 'n Eeu later het Kōrin Sōtatsu se styl herwerk en visueel pragtige werke op sy eie gemaak. Miskien is sy beste die skermskilderye van Rooi en wit pruimbloeisels.
Beeldhouwerk: Die Boeddhistiese monnik Enkū het 120.000 Boeddhistiese beelde in 'n growwe, individuele styl gekerf.
Ukiyo-e en nanga (bunjinga): Die kunsskool wat die bekendste in die Weste is, is die van die ukiyo-e-skilderye en houtsnyafdrukke van die demimonde, die wêreld van die kabuki-teater en die plesierdistrikte. Ukiyo-e-afdrukke begin in die laat 17de eeu in 1765 vervaardig word. Harunobu het die eerste poligroomafdruk gemaak. Drukontwerpers van die volgende generasie, waaronder Torii Kiyonaga en Utamaro, het elegante en soms insiggewende voorstellings van hofdienaars geskep.
In die 19de eeu was die dominante figure Hokusai en Hiroshige, laasgenoemde 'n skepper van romantiese en ietwat sentimentele landskapafdrukke. Die vreemde hoeke en vorms waardeur Hiroshige gereeld na die landskap gekyk het, en die werk van Kiyonaga en Utamaro, met die klem op plat vliegtuie en sterk lineêre buitelyne, het 'n groot impak op Westerse kunstenaars soos Edgar Degas en Vincent van Gogh. Deur middel van kunswerke wat in Westerse museums gehou word, sou dieselfde drukkers later 'n kragtige invloed op die beeldspraak en estetiese benaderings van vroeë modernistiese digters soos Ezra Pound, Richard Aldington en H.D. [21]
'N Skoolskool wat kontemporêr met ukiyo-e was, was nanga, of bunjinga, 'n styl wat gebaseer is op skilderye wat deur Chinese geleerde skilders uitgevoer is. Net soos ukiyo-e-kunstenaars verkies het om figure uit die lewe buite die beperkings van die Tokugawa-shogunaat uit te beeld, het bunjin-kunstenaars hulle tot die Chinese kultuur gewend. Die voorbeelde van hierdie styl is Ike no Taiga, Yosa Buson, Tanomura Chikuden en Yamamoto Baiitsu (ja: 山 本 梅 逸).
Traditional, mostly stoneware, styles continued in many parts of Japan, but Japanese ceramics were transformed around the start of the Edo period, by a large influx of Korean potters, captured or persuaded to emigrate in the course of the Japanese invasions of Korea in the 1590s. Many of these were settled on the southern island of Kyushu, and they brought with them experience of versions of the Chinese-style chambered climbing kiln, called noborigama in Japan, which allowed high temperatures with more precise control. By around 1620 they had discovered deposits of kaolinite, and started to make porcelain for the first time in Japan. The early wares (called "Early Imari") were relatively small and imitated the Chinese underglaze blue and white porcelain, which Japan had been importing for some time. [22]
The porcelain industry greatly expanded in the late 1650s, as the collapse of the Chinese industry from civil war led to very large orders from the Chinese traders and the Dutch East India Company, by then the traders only permitted to do business in Japan. The first great period of Japanese export porcelain lasted until about the 1740s, and the great bulk of Japanese porcelain was made for export, mostly to Europe, but also the Islamic world to the west and south of Japan. [23]
Ko-Kutani (old Kutani) five colours Iroe type sake ewer with bird and flower design in overglaze enamel, Edo period, 17th century
With the development of economy and culture, the artistic quality of lacquered furniture has improved. Hon'ami Kōetsu and Ogata Kōrin brought the designs of the Rinpa school of painting into lacquerware. After the middle of the Edo period, inrō for portable medicine containers began to be decorated gorgeously with maki-e and raden, and it became popular among samurai class and wealthy merchants in the chōnin class, and at the end of the Edo period, it changed from practical accessories to art collections. [24] [25] The export of lacquerware continued following the Azuchi-Momoyama period. Marie Antoinette and Maria Theresa are known as collectors of Japanese lacquerware in this period. [2]
Inro en Netsuke, 18th century
Art of the Prewar period Edit
When the Emperor of Japan regained ruling power in 1868, Japan was once again invaded by new and alien forms of culture. During the Prewar period, The introduction of Western cultural values led to a dichotomy in Japanese art, as well as in nearly every other aspect of culture, between traditional values and attempts to duplicate and assimilate a variety of clashing new ideas. This split remained evident in the late 20th century, although much synthesis had by then already occurred, and created an international cultural atmosphere and stimulated contemporary Japanese arts toward ever more innovative forms.
The government took an active interest in the art export market, promoting Japanese arts at a succession of world's fairs, beginning with the 1873 Vienna World's Fair. [26] [27] As well as heavily funding the fairs, the government took an active role organising how Japan's culture was presented to the world. It created a semi-public company — the Kiritsu Kosho Kaisha (First Industrial Manufacturing Company) — to promote and commercialize exports of art [28] and established the Hakurankai Jimukyoku (Exhibition Bureau) to maintain quality standards. [27] For the 1876 Centennial International Exhibition in Philadelphia, the Japanese government created a Centennial Office and sent a special envoy to secure space for the 30,000 items that would be displayed. [29] The Imperial Household also took an active interest in arts and crafts, commissioning works ("presentation wares") as gifts for foreign dignitaries. [30] In 1890, the Teishitsu Gigeiin (Artist to the Imperial Household) system was created to recognise distinguished artists seventy were appointed from 1890 to 1944. [31] Among these were the painter and lacquer artist Shibata Zeshin, ceramicist Makuzu Kōzan, painter Hashimoto Gahō, and cloisonné enamel artist Namikawa Yasuyuki. [31]
As Western imports became popular, demand for Japanese art declined within Japan itself. [32] In Europe and America, the new availability of Japanese art led to a fascination for Japanese culture a craze known in Europe as Japonisme. [33] Imperial patronage, government sponsorship, promotion to new audiences, and Western technology combined to foster an era of Japanese artistic innovation. In the decorative arts, Japanese artists reached new levels of technical sophistication. [28]
Today, Masayuki Murata owns more than 10,000 Meiji art works and is one of the most enthusiastic collectors. From that time, most of the excellent works of Meiji Art were bought by foreign collectors and only a few of them remained in Japan, but because he bought back many works from foreign countries and opened the Kiyomizu Sannenzaka Museum, [34] the study and reevaluation of Meiji Art rapidly advanced in Japan after the 21st century. [35] Nasser Khalili is also one of the world's most dedicated collectors of Meiji art, and his collection encompasses many categories of Meiji art. The Japanese Imperial Family also owns excellent works of Meiji Art, some of which were donated to the state and are now stored in the Museum of the Imperial Collections.
Architecture and Garden Edit
By the early 20th century, European art forms were well introduced and their marriage produced notable buildings like the Tokyo Train Station and the National Diet Building that still exist today. Tokyo Station, a building of Giyōfū architecture, full of bricks and pseudo-European style. This style of building was built in urban areas.
Many artistic new Japanese gardens were built by Jihei Ogawa.
Painting Edit
The first response of the Japanese to Western art forms was open-hearted acceptance, and in 1876 the Technological Art School(ja:工部美術学校) was opened, employing Italian instructors to teach Western methods. The second response was a pendulum swing in the opposite direction spearheaded by Okakura Kakuzō and the American Ernest Fenollosa, who encouraged Japanese artists to retain traditional themes and techniques while creating works more in keeping with contemporary taste. This was a strategy that eventually served to extend the influence of Japanese art as far as Calcutta, London, and Boston in the years leading up to World War I. [36] Out of these two poles of artistic theory—derived from Europe and from East Asia respectively—developed yōga ("Western-style painting") and Nihonga ("Japanese painting"), categories that have maintained currency.
Enamels Edit
During the Meiji era, Japanese cloisonné enamel reached a technical peak, producing items more advanced than any that had existed before. [37] The period from 1890 to 1910 was known as the "Golden age" of Japanese enamels. [38] Artists experimented with pastes and with the firing process to produce ever larger blocks of enamel, with less need for cloisons (enclosing metal strips). [37] Thus enamels became a more pictorial medium, with designs similar to, or copied from, traditional paintings. [39] Enamels with a design unique to Japan, in which flowers, birds and insects were used as themes, became popular. In particular, the works of Namikawa Yasuyuki and Namikawa Sōsuke were exhibited at world's fairs and won many awards. [40] [41] [42] [43] Along with the two Namikawa, the Ando Cloisonné Company has produced many high-quality cloisonne. Japanese enamels were regarded as unequalled thanks to the new achievements in design and colouring. [44]
Lacquerware Edit
The Meiji era saw a renewed interest in lacquer as artists developed new designs and experimented with new textures and finishes. [45] Maki-e (decorating the lacquer in gold or silver dust) was the most common technique for quality lacquerware in this period. [46] Shibata Zeshin was a lacquerer who gained a high reputation for his works from the Bakumatsu to the Meiji period. Lacquerware called Shibayama en Somada, created in the Edo period, became popular for its showy style, inlaid with gold, silver, shellfish, ivory, and colorful metal and glass, and reached its peak during this period. [47] Lacquer from Japanese workshops was recognised as technically superior to what could be produced anywhere else in the world. [48]
Metalwork Edit
At the start of the Meiji era, Japanese metalwork was almost totally unknown outside the country, unlike lacquer and porcelain which had previously been exported. [49] Metalwork was connected to Buddhist practice, for example in the use of bronze for temple bells and incense cauldrons, so there were fewer opportunities for metalworkers once Buddhism was displaced as the state religion. [49] International exhibitions brought Japanese cast bronze to a new foreign audience, attracting strong praise. [49] The past history of samurai weaponry equipped Japanese metalworkers to create metallic finishes in a wide range of colours. By combining and finishing copper, silver and gold in different proportions, they created specialised alloys including shakudō and shibuichi. With this variety of alloys and finishes, an artist could give the impression of full-colour decoration. [50]
Ivory carving Edit
In the Meiji period, Japanese clothes began to be westernized and the number of people who wore kimono decreased, so the craftsmen who made netsuke en kiseru with ivory and wood lost their demand. Therefore, they tried to create a new field, ivory sculptures for interior decoration, and many elaborate works were exported to foreign countries or purchased by the Imperial Family. In particular, the works of Ishikawa Komei and Asahi Gyokuzan won praise in Japan. [51]
Porcelain and Earthenware Edit
Technical and artistic innovations of the Meiji era turned porcelain into one of the most internationally successful Japanese decorative art forms. [52] Satsuma ware was a name originally given to pottery from Satsuma province, elaborately decorated with gilt and enamel. These wares were highly praised in the West. Seen in the West as distinctively Japanese, this style actually owed a lot to imported pigments and Western influences, and had been created with export in mind. [53] Workshops in many cities raced to produce this style to satisfy demand from Europe and America, often producing quickly and cheaply. So the term "Satsuma ware" came to be associated not with a place of origin but with lower-quality ware created purely for export. [54] Despite this, artists such as Yabu Meizan and Makuzu Kōzan maintained the highest artistic standards while also successfully exporting. [55] From 1876 to 1913, Kōzan won prizes at 51 exhibitions, including the World's fair and the National Industrial Exhibition. [56]
Textiles Edit
The 1902 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica wrote, "In no branch of applied art does the decorative genius of Japan show more attractive results than that of textile fabrics, and in none has there been more conspicuous progress during recent years." [57] Very large, colourful pictorial works were being produced in Kyoto. Embroidery had become an art form in its own right, adopting a range of pictorial techniques such as chiaroscuro and aerial perspective. [57]
Art of the Postwar period Edit
Immediately following Japan's defeat in World War II in 1945, large numbers of Japanese artists fell under the influence of, or even joined, the Japan Communist Party, which had just been legalized by the U.S.-led military occupation of Japan after many years of suppression by the prewar and wartime Japanese police. [58] This had to do with the success of the Communist Party had in peddling the notion in the early postwar years that the party had been the only group in Japan to have resisted wartime militarism. [59] In addition, the Japanese word for "vanguard" (前衛, zen'ei), as in "vanguard of the communist revolution," happens to be the same word used for "avant-garde" as in the artistic avant-garde. [60] The Japan Communist Party soon came to dominate the major art societies and exhibitions in Japan, and thus the predominant form of art in the immediate aftermath of the war was socialist realism that depicted the suffering of the poor and the nobility of the working class, in line with Communist Party doctrine that all art should serve the purpose of advancing the cause of revolution. [59] In 1952, the Communist Party even ordered artists such as Hiroshi Katsuragawa and other members of the newly formed Avant-Garde Art Association (前衛美術会, Zen'ei Bijutsukai) out into the mountains to produce socialist realist art in support of "mountain guerrilla squads" that were attempting to foment a violent revolution in Japan. [61]
The 1950s: Struggling to break free of socialist realism Edit
Over the course of the 1950s, many Japanese artists became increasingly disillusioned with the rigid and limited definition of "art" enforced by the Communist Party. [62] However, due to the ongoing preeminence of Communist Party members and supporters in the senior ranks of artistic societies and exhibition juries, artists found it extremely difficult to even show their art unless they conformed to the Party's guidelines. [63] Some artists shied away from formal public exhibitions. Others sought recognition, financial support, and opportunities to show their art overseas, such as the Gutai group of conceptual artists, founded in 1954. Still other artists made use of the few unjuried, "independent" exhibitions in Japan, such as the Yomiuri Independent Exhibition sponsored by the Yomiuri Shinbun, which anyone could enter. [64]
A final straw came with the massive 1960 Anpo Protests against the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty (known as "Anpo" in Japanese"), due to the extremely passive role played by the supposedly "vanguard" Communist Party. When the protests failed to stop the treaty, a round of recriminations led to further disillusionment with the Communist Party and socialist realist art, causing many more artists to break away from the Party's influence. [65]
The 1960s: An explosion of new genres Edit
With the dominance of socialist realism fading, the 1960s witnessed an explosion of new art forms in Japan, as the arts expanded in new directions that might best be termed "postmodern." [66] Artist collectives such as Neo-Dada Organizers, Zero Dimension, and Hi-Red Center explored concepts such as "non-art" and "anti-art," and conducted a variety of audacious "events," "happenings," and other forms of performance art designed to erode the boundaries between art and daily life. The Mono-ha group similarly pushed the boundaries dividing art, space, landscape, and the environment. Other artists, such as graphic designer Tadanori Yokoo, drew inspiration from 1960s counterculture and the explosion of new forms of adult-oriented manga comics. In the performing arts, Tatsumi Hijikata pioneered a new form of postmodern dance called Butoh, and playwrights such as Jūrō Kara and Satō Makoto created the Angura style of radical "underground" theater. [67] And in photography, photographers such as Daidō Moriyama pioneered an extremely influential new school of postwar photography that emphasized spontaneity over carefully staged composition and celebrated the characteristics "are, bure, bokeh" (literally "rough, blurred, out-of-focus"). [68] [69]
The proliferation of new types of art was supported by the tremendous growth of Japan's economy in the 1960s, remembered as the "Japanese economic miracle." Over the course of the 1960s, the Japanese economy grew by over 10% per year. Rising wealth created a new class of consumers who could afford to spend money on art and support different types of art and artists. For the first time in Japan's modern history, it became viable for significant numbers of artists to make a living purely through selling their art. The 1960s construction boom in Japan, which leveled the old wood-and-paper traditional Japanese architecture and replaced it with sparkling mega-cities of glass and steel, helped inspire brand new schools of Japanese architecture, such as the Metabolism (architecture) movement led by Kenzō Tange, that boldly broke free from conventional models and proved influential around the world.
At the same time, however, the art world remained dominated by cliques that promoted the works of certain (usually male) artists over others. As it became much easier for Japanese to travel overseas in the 1960s, some female artists such as Yayoi Kusama and Yoko Ono found better reception overseas, and decamped for artistic centers such as London, Paris, and New York, as did many male artists as well.
The triumph of the new forms of Japanese art was cemented at the 1970 Osaka World's Fair, where dozens of avant-garde and conceptual artists were hired to design pavilions and artistic experiences for fair-goers. [70] Japanese avant-garde art had gone global, and had become something even the conservative government was proud to display to the world.
The 1970s and 1980s: Riding the economic bubble Edit
The 1970s and 1980s saw Japanese art continue in many of the directions begun in the 1950s and 1960s, but often with much bigger budgets and more expensive materials. As Japan's economy kept rapidly expanding, and eventually grew into one of the largest economic bubbles in history. With Japanese currency becoming incredibly strong in the wake of the 1985 Plaza Accord, Japanese individuals and institutions became major players in the international art market. Extraordinarily wealthy Japanese mega-corporations began constructing their own private art museums and acquiring collections of modern and contemporary art, and Japanese artists greatly benefited from these expenditures as well.
In particular, artistic production continued to trend away from traditional painting and sculpture in the direction of graphic design, pop art, wearable art, performance art, conceptual art, and installation art. Various types of "hybrid" art increasingly came into vogue. As technology advanced, artists increasingly incorporated electronics, video, computers, synthesized music and sounds, and video games into their art. The aesthetics of manga and anime, which so many younger artists had grown up immersed in, exerted an increasing if sometimes quite subtle influence. Above all, artists eschewed anything redolent of "high art" or "fine art" in favor of the personal, the eclectic, the fantastic or phantasmagoric, and the playful. In edition, female artists such as Mika Yoshizawa became more and more accepted and supported by the art world in Japan.
Contemporary art in Japan Edit
Japanese contemporary art takes as many forms and expresses as many different ideas as worldwide contemporary art in general. It ranges from advertisements, anime, video games, and architecture as already mentioned, to sculpture, painting, and drawing in all their myriad forms. Japanese artists have made especially notable contributions to global contemporary art in the fields of architecture, video games, graphic design, fashion, and perhaps above all, animation. While anime at first were derived primarily from manga stories, [ aanhaling nodig ] diverse anime abounds today, and many artists and studios have risen to great fame as artists Hayao Miyazaki and the artists and animators of Studio Ghibli are generally regarded to be among the best the anime world has to offer.
At the same time, many Japanese artists continue to use traditional Japanese artistic techniques and materials inherited from premodern times, such as traditional forms of Japanese paper and ceramics and painting with black and color ink on paper or silk. Some of these artworks depict traditional subject matters in traditional styles, while others explore new and different motifs and styles, or create hybrids of traditional and contemporary art forms, while using traditional media or materials. Still others eschew native media and styles, embracing Western oil paints or any number of other forms.
In sculpture, the same holds true some artists stick to the traditional modes, some doing it with a modern flair, and some choose Western or brand new modes, styles, and media. Yo Akiyama is just one of many modern Japanese sculptors. He works primarily in clay pottery and ceramics, creating works that are very simple and straightforward, looking like they were created out of the earth itself. Another sculptor, using iron and other modern materials, built a large modern art sculpture in the Israeli port city of Haifa, called Hanabi (Fireworks). Nahoko Kojima is a contemporary Kirie artist who has pioneered the technique of Paper Cut Sculpture which hangs in 3D.
Takashi Murakami is arguably one of the most well-known Japanese modern artists in the Western world. Murakami and the other artists in his studio create pieces in a style, inspired by anime, which he has dubbed "superflat". His pieces take a multitude of forms, from painting to sculpture, some truly massive in size. But most if not all show very clearly this anime influence, utilizing bright colors and simplified details.
Yayoi Kusama, Yoshitomo Nara, Hiroshi Sugimoto, Chiharu Shiota, Daidō Moriyama, Mariko Mori, Aya Takano, and Tabaimo are considered significant artists in the field of contemporary Japanese art. [71] The Group 1965, an artists' collective, counts contemporary artist Makoto Aida among its members. [72]
Many traditional forms of Japanese music, dance, and theater have survived in the contemporary world, enjoying some popularity through reidentification with Japanese cultural values. Traditional music and dance, which trace their origins to ancient religious use—Buddhist, Shintō, and folk—have been preserved in the dramatic performances of Noh, Kabuki, and bunraku theater. Ancient court music and dance forms deriving from continental sources were preserved through Imperial household musicians and temple and shrine troupes. Some of the oldest musical instruments in the world have been in continuous use in Japan from the Jōmon period, as shown by finds of stone and clay flutes and zithers having between two and four strings, to which Yayoi period metal bells and gongs were added to create early musical ensembles. By the early historical period (6th to 7th centuries), there were a variety of large and small drums, gongs, chimes, flutes, and stringed instruments, such as the imported mandolin-like biwa and the flat six-stringed zither, which evolved into the thirteen-stringed koto. These instruments formed the orchestras for the 7th-century continentally derived ceremonial court music (gagaku), which, together with the accompanying bugaku (a type of court dance), are the most ancient of such forms still performed at the Imperial court, ancient temples, and shrines. Buddhism introduced the rhythmic chants, still used, that underpin Shigin, and that were joined with native ideas to underlay the development of vocal music, such as in Noh.
Japanese art is characterized by unique polarities. In the ceramics of the prehistoric periods, for example, exuberance was followed by disciplined and refined artistry. Another instance is provided by two 16th-century structures that are poles apart: the Katsura Detached Palace is an exercise in simplicity, with an emphasis on natural materials, rough and untrimmed, and an affinity for beauty achieved by accident Nikkō Tōshō-gū is a rigidly symmetrical structure replete with brightly colored relief carvings covering every visible surface. Japanese art, valued not only for its simplicity but also for its colorful exuberance, has considerably influenced 19th-century Western painting and 20th-century Western architecture.
Japan's aesthetic conceptions, deriving from diverse cultural traditions, have been formative in the production of unique art forms. Over the centuries, a wide range of artistic motifs developed and were refined, becoming imbued with symbolic significance. Like a pearl, they acquired many layers of meaning and a high luster. Japanese aesthetics provide a key to understanding artistic works perceivably different from those coming from Western traditions.
Within the East Asian artistic tradition, China has been the acknowledged teacher and Japan the devoted student. Nevertheless, several Japanese arts developed their own style, which can be differentiated from various Chinese arts. The monumental, symmetrically balanced, rational approach of Chinese art forms became miniaturized, irregular, and subtly suggestive in Japanese hands. Miniature rock gardens, diminutive plants (bonsai), and ikebana (flower arrangements), in which the selected few represented a garden, were the favorite pursuits of refined aristocrats for a millennium, and they have remained a part of contemporary cultural life.
The diagonal, reflecting a natural flow, rather than the fixed triangle, became the favored structural device, whether in painting, architectural or garden design, dance steps, or musical notations. Odd numbers replace even numbers in the regularity of a Chinese master pattern, and a pull to one side allows a motif to turn the corner of a three-dimensional object, thus giving continuity and motion that is lacking in a static frontal design. Japanese painters used the devices of the cutoff, close-up, and fade-out by the 12th century in yamato-e, or Japanese-style, scroll painting, perhaps one reason why modern filmmaking has been such a natural and successful art form in Japan. Suggestion is used rather than direct statement oblique poetic hints and allusive and inconclusive melodies and thoughts have proved frustrating to the Westerner trying to penetrate the meanings of literature, music, painting, and even everyday language.
The Japanese began defining such aesthetic ideas in a number of evocative phrases by at least the 10th or 11th century. The courtly refinements of the aristocratic Heian period evolved into the elegant simplicity seen as the essence of good taste in the understated art that is called shibui. Two terms originating from Zen Buddhist meditative practices describe degrees of tranquility: one, the repose found in humble melancholy (wabi), the other, the serenity accompanying the enjoyment of subdued beauty (sabi). Zen thought also contributed a penchant for combining the unexpected or startling, used to jolt one's consciousness toward the goal of enlightenment. In art, this approach was expressed in combinations of such unlikely materials as lead inlaid in lacquer and in clashing poetic imagery. Unexpectedly humorous and sometimes grotesque images and motifs also stem from the Zen kōan (conundrum). Although the arts have been mainly secular since the Edo period, traditional aesthetics and training methods, stemming generally from religious sources, continue to underlie artistic productions.
Modern concepts Edit
Today, Japan has developed a more modern cultural aesthetic often associated with Shojo manga known as "kawaii," which can otherwise be described as "cute". Typically represented through cartoons and animation, kawaii has had a powerful cultural impact and is also a powerful agent for Japanese advertisement and consumption. [73] The concept of "cuteness" that is currently displayed in kawaii has traditionally been revered in Japanese culture spanning back to the Edo period of art in the 15th century. [74]
Kawaii fashion found in Tokyo, Japan
Osaka Kawaii à Japan Expo 2014.
Traditional aesthetics Edit
Traditional Japanese Aesthetics are forms of beauty in Japanese culture that derive from the earliest centuries. At least over two-hundred years ago. Some of these early aesthetics make up the Japanese Aesthetic as a whole: Syncretic Buddhist Art, Wabi-Sabi, Miyabi, Shibui, and Jo-ha-Kyu.
Syncretic Buddhist art Edit
Wabi-Sabi Edit
This aesthetic in Japanese culture is known for many things such as beauty in all things, even those that are imperfect. Modesty and unconventional things are what are seen as the wabi-sabi aesthetic. Wabi and sabi both make up the aesthetic of beauty in incompleteness together. When separated, both serve as differing terms. Wabi stands for fresh, simple work, denoting all complication and having a very rustic feel to all it relates too. Being made from nature and made from man itself in a tandem. If made by accident, it brings about a certain uniqueness to the work. Sabi is beauty and how it originates from age. The cycle of life plays a great role in sabi, adding to the aesthetic that sense of beauty in works that receive mending damage from aging over time. When bringing wabi and sabi together, it creates the aesthetic that every simple piece developed does not require a complicated design. Nor does it require absolute completeness for beauty to be found in it, and with age comes more delicate beauty.
Wabi-sabi has always been related to tea ceremonies in Japanese culture. It is said that these ceremonies are profound wabi-sabi events. Wabi-sabi is also related to activities such as architecture, fashion, and philosophy. All of these portions of wabi-sabi all share belief in the same theme: all imperfections such as incomplete work holds undeniable beauty. However, not everyone, of course, favors the idea behind wabi-sabi. While this is true, there are many who wish to keep the belief alive despite what others believe. Overall, wabi-sabi seems to be a very mindful approach to everyday life. A calm way to see things, and a way to live without coming off as judgmental. When understanding wabi-sabi, there are terms that strongly relate to the aesthetic as well.
Fukinsei: asymmetry, irregularity. Kanso: simplicity. Koko: basic, weathered. Shizen: without pretense, natural. Yugen: subtly profound grace, not obvious. Datsuzoku: unbounded by convention, free. Seijaku: tranquility, silence.
Each of these terms are used to break down the complete understanding of wabi-sabi. It more so relates to the philosophy aspect of the entire aesthetic and how to view one's surroundings. These can allude to several things including the ideas in humans, the themes behind certain aspects of life, or nature itself. Each term leads back to the point that wabi-sabi is an aesthetic that is about appreciating the small things that are imperfect and or incomplete.
Miyabi Edit
In the ongoing history of Japan, miyabi can stand for many things. However, it seems to be centered around the concept of elegance, beauty, refinement, and courtliness. For this, it is one of the older aesthetics among most of the Japanese aesthetics in the culture. That would explain why it is not as popular as the rest which may be newer compared to miyabi. It is a term that is also used to express aristocratic culture. Miyabi eliminates all forms of rudeness and crudity from the culture. This brings about the proper picture and form of aristocratic culture. Miyabi brings about these changes. Miyabi ensures that refinement of love, literature, feeling, and art is celebrated within the Japanese culture. Refinement is welcomed.
Shibui Edit
Shibui is coming to understand an object or an art piece for what it is. Locating simple and subtle beauty in certain things is a goal when it comes to designing or reviewing certain designs. In many ways, shibui is very similar to wabi-sabi but is not wabi-sabi. Shibui appreciates items and objects for simply being. There is no complication or irrational thinking when it comes down to shibui. Akin to certain aesthetics in the Japanese culture, there are a couple of terms in relation to Shibui: shibumi is the taste of shibui Shibusa is the state of shibui.
Both these terms relate to subtle, unobtrusive beauty. There are several items and objects that can be considered a part of the shibui aesthetic, not just art or fashion. It can also be people, animals, songs, movies, several different types of media can be seen as shibui. For example, a pair of shoes, a camera, a moped bike, and several different pieces of art or objects used for everyday activity can be seen as shibui. Direct and simple is the way of shibui. Nothing over the top or too flashy.
Jo-ha-kyu Edit
This is an aesthetic that originated from the Noh Theatre and even appeared in the 14th century. It is used in different art forms in Japan even still today. It is a movement that has been applied in several different arts with jo, ha, and kyu standing for individual things to make up its definition: jo, 'beginning' ha, 'break', 'crack' kyu: 'rapid', 'over'
Essentially, what this aesthetic means is that when it comes down to pieces that deal with movement, things should start slowly with proper build-up. Almost akin to how a story is told. Then once it reaches its climax, it speeds up. When it reaches its end, then that is when things begin to rapidly speed up until all of a sudden it has reached an ending.
Traditionally, the artist was a vehicle for expression and was personally reticent, in keeping with the role of an artisan or entertainer of low social status. The calligrapher, a member of the Confucian literati class, or samurai class in Japan, had a higher status, while artists of great genius were often recognized in the Kamakura period by receiving a name from a feudal lord and thus rising socially. The performing arts, however, were generally held in less esteem, and the purported immorality of actresses of the early Kabuki theater caused the Tokugawa government to bar women from the stage female roles in Kabuki and Noh thereafter were played by men.
After the World War II, artists typically gathered in arts associations, some of which were long-established professional societies while others reflected the latest arts movement. The Japan Artists League, for example, was responsible for the largest number of major exhibitions, including the prestigious annual Nitten (Japan Art Exhibition). The PEN Club of Japan (PEN stands for prose, essay, and narrative), a branch of an international writers' organization, was the largest of some thirty major authors' associations. Actors, dancers, musicians, and other performing artists boasted their own societies, including the Kabuki Society, organized in 1987 to maintain this art's traditional high standards, which were thought to be endangered by modern innovation. By the 1980s, however, avant-garde painters and sculptors had eschewed all groups and were "unattached" artists.
Art schools Edit
There are a number of specialized universities for the arts in Japan, led by the national universities. The most important is the Tokyo Arts University, one of the most difficult of all national universities to enter. Another seminal center is Tama Art University, which produced many of Japan's late 20th-century innovative young artists. Traditional training in the arts, derived from Chinese traditional methods, remains experts teach from their homes or head schools working within a master-pupil relationship. A pupil does not experiment with a personal style until achieving the highest level of training, or graduating from an arts school, or becoming head of a school. Many young artists have criticized this system as stifling creativity and individuality. A new generation of the avant-garde has broken with this tradition, often receiving its training in the West. In the traditional arts, however, the master-pupil system preserves the secrets and skills of the past. Some master-pupil lineages can be traced to the Kamakura period, from which they continue to use a great master's style or theme. Japanese artists consider technical virtuosity as the sine qua non of their professions, a fact recognized by the rest of the world as one of the hallmarks of Japanese art.
The national government has actively supported the arts through the Agency for Cultural Affairs, set up in 1968 as a special body of the Ministry of Education. The agency's budget for FY 1989 rose to ￥37.8 billion after five years of budget cuts, but still represented much less than 1 percent of the general budget. The agency's Cultural Affairs Division disseminated information about the arts within Japan and internationally, and the Cultural Properties Protection Division (文化財保護部, now 文化財部) protected the nation's cultural heritage. The Cultural Affairs Division is concerned with such areas as art and culture promotion, arts copyrights, and improvements in the national language. It also supports both national and local arts and cultural festivals, and it funds traveling cultural events in music, theater, dance, art exhibitions, and filmmaking. Special prizes are offered to encourage young artists and established practitioners, and some grants are given each year to enable them to train abroad. The agency funds national museums of modern art in Kyoto and Tokyo and The National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo, which exhibit both Japanese and international shows. The agency also supports the Japan Art Academy, which honors eminent persons of arts and letters, appointing them to membership and offering ￥3.5 million in prize money. Awards are made in the presence of the Emperor, who personally bestows the highest accolade, the Order of Culture. Tokyo University of the Arts also taking active roles on several art events in previous years. Their other campuses are also involving varied courses.
Private sponsorship and foundations Edit
Arts patronage and promotion by the government are broadened to include a new cooperative effort with corporate Japan to provide funding beyond the tight budget of the Agency for Cultural Affairs. Many other public and private institutions participate, especially in the burgeoning field of awarding arts prizes. A growing number of large corporations join major newspapers in sponsoring exhibitions and performances and in giving yearly prizes. The most important of the many literary awards given are the venerable Naoki Prize and the Akutagawa Prize, the latter being the equivalent of the Pulitzer Prize in the United States.
In 1989 an effort to promote cross-cultural exchange led to the establishment of a Japanese "Nobel Prize" for the arts, the Premium Imperiale, by the Japan Art Association. This prize of US$100,000 was funded largely by the mass media conglomerate Fujisankei Communications Group and was awarded on a worldwide selection basis.
A number of foundations promoting the arts arose in the 1980s, including the Cultural Properties Foundation set up to preserve historic sites overseas, especially along the Silk Road in Inner Asia and at Dunhuang in China. Another international arrangement was made in 1988 with the United States Smithsonian Institution for cooperative exchange of high-technology studies of Asian artifacts. The government plays a major role by funding the Japan Foundation, which provides both institutional and individual grants, effects scholarly exchanges, awards annual prizes, supported publications and exhibitions, and sends traditional Japanese arts groups to perform abroad. The Arts Festival held for two months each fall for all the performing arts is sponsored by the Agency for Cultural Affairs. Major cities also provides substantial support for the arts a growing number of cities in the 1980s had built large centers for the performing arts and, stimulated by government funding, were offering prizes such as the Lafcadio Hearn Prize initiated by the city of Matsue. A number of new municipal museums were also providing about one-third more facilities in the 1980s than were previously available. In the late 1980s, Tokyo added more than twenty new cultural halls, notably, the large Bunkamura built by Tokyu Group and the reconstruction of Shakespeare's Globe Theatre. All these efforts reflect a rising popular enthusiasm for the arts. Japanese art buyers swept the Western art markets in the late 1980s, paying record highs for impressionist paintings and US$51.7 million alone for one blue period Picasso.
