Wanneer het mense verstaan waar kinders vandaan kom?

lW rb vb lY kM Aa Ma dq qr DT pS Iz Oz eW XB DV Ve DL RE JU

Wat is die oudste bron wat mense verseker geweet het wat 'n vrou swanger maak?

Vir so 'n bron verstaan ek dat die skrywer 9 maande voor die geboorte weet wat 'n man en 'n vrou gedoen het en dat hierdie daad die direkte rede vir 'n kind was. Dit is genoeg dat daar gesê word "hulle het saam geslaap". Pornografie sou aanvaar word as die verband tussen die daad en bevrugting gesê word. Dit is nie aanvaarbaar as die kind 'n 'goddelike geskenk', 'seën van Zeus', ens.

Ek dink dit sou baie oud wees, aangesien herders sou weet hoe om hul kuddes groter te maak.

Die oudste wat ek kon vind, is 'n Heilige Bybel, in Genesis hoofstuk 4 vers 1 en dan 17:

En Adam het sy vrou Eva geken; en sy het swanger geword en Kain gebaar en gesê: Ek het 'n man van die HERE gekry. (...) En Kain het sy vrou geken; en sy het swanger geword en Henog gebaar (...)

As iemand kan verduidelik of 'sy vrou geken het' beteken ''n seksuele verhouding met haar' '. Indien nie, kan ons verder gaan (hoofstuk 6 vers 4):

Daar was reuse op die aarde in daardie dae; en ook daarna, toe die seuns van God by die dogters van die mense ingekom het en vir hulle kinders gebaar het, het hy sterk ou manne geword, manne van bekendheid.

(Hoofstuk 19 :)

En Lot het opgetrek uit Soar en gaan woon op die berg en sy twee dogters saam met hom; want hy was bevrees om in Soar te woon; en hy en hy en sy twee dogters het in 'n grot gewoon. En die eersgeborene sê vir die jongste: "Ons vader is oud, en daar is nie 'n man op die aarde wat by ons kan ingaan volgens die gewoonte van die hele aarde nie: Kom, laat ons ons vader wyn laat drink, en ons sal lieg saam met hom, sodat ons die saad van ons vader kan bewaar. " En hulle het hulle vader die nag wyn laat drink; en die eersgeborene het ingegaan en by haar vader gelê; en hy het nie gewaar wanneer sy gaan lê nie, en ook nie toe sy opstaan nie. En die volgende dag het die eersgeborene vir die jongste gesê: Kyk, ek het gisteraand by my vader gelê; laat ons hom ook hierdie nag wyn laat drink; en gaan in en gaan lê by hom, dat ons kan bewaar die saad van ons vader. ” En hulle het hulle vader die aand ook wyn laat drink; en die jongste het opgestaan en by hom gaan lê; en hy het nie gewaar wanneer sy gaan lê nie, en ook nie toe sy opstaan nie. So was albei die dogters van Lot wat swanger was deur hulle vader. En die eersgeborene het 'n seun gebaar en hom Moab genoem; dieselfde is die vader van die Moabiete tot vandag toe. En die jongste, sy het ook 'n seun gebaar en hom Benammi genoem; dieselfde is die vader van die kinders van Ammon tot vandag toe.

Die Wikipedia sê dat die boek Genesis ongeveer ca. 6-5 eeu vC:

Dit laat die vraag ontstaan wanneer hierdie werke geskep is. Geleerdes in die eerste helfte van die 20ste eeu het tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat die Yahwist in die monargistiese tydperk, spesifiek by die hof van Salomo, en die Priesterlike werk in die middel van die 5de eeu vC ontstaan het (die skrywer is selfs geïdentifiseer as Esra ), maar die meer onlangse denke is dat die Yahwist net voor of tydens die Babiloniese ballingskap van die 6de eeu geskryf is, en dat die laaste uitgawe van die priester laat in die ballingskap of kort daarna gemaak is.

Is daar ander, ouer bronne wat bevestig dat mense weet waar kinders vandaan kom?

(alle Bybelse aanhalings uit KJV)

Die eertydse Egiptenare was redelik bewus van die algemene meganika van bevalling.

Die vroegste bron wat ek kon vind, is een van die Kahun Papyri, die Kahun ginekologiese papirus (~ 1850 vC). Dit handel oor die gesondheid van vroue, insluitend swangerskap, vrugbaarheid, menstruele probleme en mediese voorbehoeding. Hierdie laaste kwessie, voorbehoeding, is 'n meer onthullende begrip van die Egiptenare se geboorte. Voorbehoeding en geboortebeperking in die algemeen kan nie effektief wees sonder ten minste 'n algemene idee van waar kinders vandaan kom nie.

Die papirus moedig die gebruik van krokodil ontlasting aan as 'n voorbehoedmiddel. Die metode berus op die toediening van die ontlasting in die vagina en die vorming van 'n muur wat die sperms kan blokkeer. Verder is die ontlasting van krokodille effens alkalies, soos moderne spermdoders, sodat die metode moontlik 'n tweede vlak van voorbehoeding sou bied.

Die Berlynse Papirus (Middelryk: ~ 2000 vC tot ~ 1700 vC) stel 'n soortgelyke metode voor en vervang die ontlasting van krokodille met as van brandende emmer (koring) sade. Ongeag die materiaal wat gebruik is, het die metode byna 3 millenia lank bestaan. Dit verskyn in Avicenna se Canon of Medicine (~ 1025 nC), met Avicenna wat die uitskeiding van olifante verkies.

Die mediese Ebers Papyrus (~ 1550 vC) toon 'n sprong in mediese kennis sedert die Kahun Papyrus, wat onder meer aborsie bespreek en 'n formule bied vir 'n vaginale pessarium.

Bronne:

Die 'Kahun Medical Papyrus' of 'Ginecological Papyrus', vertaal deur Stephen Quirke
Voorbehoeding: 'n Geskiedenis, Robert Jütte
Eve's Herbs: A History of Contraception and Abortion in the West, John M. Riddle

Thomas Jefferson

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), skrywer van die Onafhanklikheidsverklaring en die derde Amerikaanse president, was 'n leidende figuur in die vroeë ontwikkeling van Amerika. Tydens die Amerikaanse Revolusionêre Oorlog (1775-83) dien Jefferson in die wetgewer van Virginia en die kontinentale kongres en was hy goewerneur van Virginia. Hy dien later as die Amerikaanse minister van Frankryk en die Amerikaanse minister van buitelandse sake, en was vise-president van John Adams (1735-1826). Jefferson, 'n Demokratiese-Republikein wat van mening was dat die nasionale regering 'n beperkte rol in die burgerlike lewens moet speel, is in 1800 tot president verkies. Gedurende sy twee ampstermyne (1801-1809) het die VSA die Louisiana Territory en Lewis en Clark gekoop. het die groot nuwe verkryging ondersoek. Alhoewel Jefferson individuele vryheid bevorder het, was hy ook 'n slawe -eienaar. Nadat hy sy amp verlaat het, het hy teruggetrek na sy plantasie in Virginia, Monticello, en gehelp om die Universiteit van Virginia te stig.

Inhoud

Intellektuele gestremdheid (ID) word tydens die kinderjare duidelik en behels tekorte in verstandelike vermoëns, sosiale vaardighede en kernaktiwiteite van die daaglikse lewe (ADL's) in vergelyking met eweknieë van dieselfde ouderdom. [10] Daar is dikwels geen fisiese tekens van ligte vorme van ID nie, alhoewel daar kenmerkende fisiese eienskappe kan wees wanneer dit verband hou met 'n genetiese afwyking (bv. Down -sindroom). [11]

Die vlak van gestremdheid wissel vir elke persoon. Sommige van die vroeë tekens kan die volgende insluit: [11]

Vertragings om mylpale in die ontwikkeling van motoriese vaardighede te bereik of te misluk (sit, kruip, loop)
Stadig leer leer praat, of voortgesette probleme met spraak en taalvaardighede nadat u begin praat het
Moeilikheid met selfhelp- en selfversorgingsvaardighede (bv. Aantrek, was en voed)
Swak beplanning of probleemoplossingsvermoëns
Gedrags- en sosiale probleme [12]
Versuim om intellektueel te groei, of voortgesette kinderlike gedrag van babas
Probleme om by te bly op skool
Versuim om aan te pas of aan te pas by nuwe situasies
Moeilik om sosiale reëls te verstaan en te volg [10]

In die vroeë kinderjare is ligte ID (IQ 50–69) nie duidelik of geïdentifiseer voordat kinders begin skoolgaan nie. [7] Selfs as swak akademiese prestasie erken word, kan 'n deskundige beoordeling nodig wees om ligte intellektuele gestremdheid te onderskei van spesifieke leergestremdheid of emosionele/gedragsversteurings. Mense met 'n ligte ID kan lees- en wiskundige vaardighede aanleer tot ongeveer die vlak van 'n tipiese kind van nege tot twaalf jaar. Hulle kan selfversorging en praktiese vaardighede aanleer, soos kook of die gebruik van die plaaslike massavervoerstelsel. Namate individue met verstandelike gestremdheid volwassenheid bereik, leer baie om onafhanklik te lewe en om werk te kry. [7] Ongeveer 85% van persone met ID het waarskynlik ligte ID.

Matige ID (IQ 35–49) is byna altyd duidelik in die eerste lewensjare. Spraakvertragings is veral algemene tekens van matige ID. Mense met matige intellektuele gestremdhede benodig aansienlike ondersteuning op skool, tuis en in die gemeenskap om ten volle deel te neem. Alhoewel hul akademiese potensiaal beperk is, kan hulle eenvoudige gesondheids- en veiligheidsvaardighede aanleer en aan eenvoudige aktiwiteite deelneem. Mense met 'n matige ID kan lees- en wiskundige vaardighede aanleer tot ongeveer die vlak van 'n tipiese kind tussen ses en nege jaar oud. As volwassenes woon hulle moontlik saam met hul ouers, in 'n ondersteunende groepshuis of selfs semi-onafhanklik met beduidende ondersteunende dienste om hulle byvoorbeeld te help om hul finansies te bestuur. As volwassenes werk hulle moontlik in 'n beskutte werkswinkel. [7] Ongeveer 10% van persone met ID het waarskynlik matige ID.

Mense met ernstige (IQ 20–34). 3,5% van die persone met 'n ID of diepgaande ID (IQ 19 of laer) is verantwoordelik vir 1,5% van die persone met 'n ID wat hul lewens lank intensiewer nodig is. Hulle kan 'n paar ADL's leer, maar 'n verstandelike gestremdheid word as ernstig of diep beskou as individue nie in staat is om selfstandig vir hulself te sorg nie, sonder om deurlopende beduidende hulp van 'n versorger gedurende die volwassenheid aan te gaan. [7] Persone met 'n diepgaande identiteit is heeltemal afhanklik van ander vir alle ADL's en om hul fisiese gesondheid en veiligheid te behou. Hulle kan in beperkte mate leer deelneem aan sommige van hierdie aktiwiteite. [11]

Ko-morbiditeit

Outisme en verstandelike gestremdheid

Intellektuele gestremdheid en outisme spektrumstoornis (ASD) deel kliniese kenmerke wat verwarring kan veroorsaak tydens die diagnose. [13] Die oorvleueling van hierdie twee afwykings, hoewel dit algemeen voorkom, kan nadelig wees vir 'n persoon se welstand. Diegene met ASD wat simptome van ID het, kan gegroepeer word in 'n medediagnose waarin hulle behandeling ontvang vir 'n siekte wat hulle nie het nie. Net so kan diegene met ID wat verkeerdelik ASD het, behandel word vir simptome van 'n siekte wat hulle nie het nie. Deur hierdie twee afwykings te onderskei, sal dokters die toepaslike behandelings kan voorskryf of voorskryf. Komorbiditeit tussen ID en ASD is baie algemeen, ongeveer 40% van diegene met ID het ook ASD en ongeveer 70% van diegene met ASD het ook ID. [14] Beide ASD en ID vereis tekorte in kommunikasie en sosiale bewustheid as bepalende kriteria. [13] Beide ASD en ID word volgens erns geklassifiseer: lig, matig, ernstig. Benewens die drie vlakke, het ID 'n vierde klassifikasie, bekend as diepgaande.

Definieer verskille

In 'n studie wat in 2016 gedoen is, waarin 2816 gevalle ondersoek is, is bevind dat die top-subgroepe wat help om te onderskei tussen persone met ID en ASD, ". Verswakte nie-verbale sosiale gedrag en gebrek aan sosiale wederkerigheid, [.] Beperkte belange, streng nakoming. aan roetines, stereotipeerde en herhalende motoriese maniere, en beheptheid met dele van voorwerpe ". [13] Diegene met ASD is geneig om meer tekorte te toon in nie-verbale sosiale gedrag, soos lyftaal en die verstaan van sosiale leidrade. In 'n studie wat in 2008 gedoen is onder 336 individue met verskillende ID -vlakke, is gevind dat diegene met ID minder gevalle van herhalende of ritualistiese gedrag toon. Dit het ook erken dat diegene met ASD, in vergelyking met diegene met ID, meer geneig is om hulself te isoleer en minder oogkontak te maak. [15] As dit by klassifikasie kom, het ID en ASD baie verskillende riglyne. ID het 'n gestandaardiseerde assessering genaamd die Supports Intensity Scale (SIS), dit meet die erns op 'n stelsel wat gebaseer is op hoeveel ondersteuning 'n individu benodig. Alhoewel ASD ook die erns klassifiseer volgens die nodige ondersteuning, is daar geen standaardbeoordeling nie, maar dit is klinici vry om die erns na eie oordeel te diagnoseer. [16]

By kinders is die oorsaak van verstandelike gestremdheid onbekend in 'n derde tot die helfte van die gevalle. [7] Ongeveer 5% van die gevalle word van 'n persoon se ouers geërf. [8] Genetiese gebreke wat intellektuele gestremdheid veroorsaak, maar nie geërf word nie, kan veroorsaak word deur ongelukke of mutasies in genetiese ontwikkeling. Voorbeelde van sulke ongelukke is die ontwikkeling van 'n ekstra chromosoom 18 (trisomie 18) en Down -sindroom, wat die algemeenste genetiese oorsaak is. [8] Velocardiofacial sindroom en fetale alkoholspektrumstoornisse is die twee mees algemene oorsake. [7] Daar is egter baie ander oorsake. Die algemeenste is:

PHF8

Probleme tydens swangerskap. Intellektuele gestremdheid kan ontstaan as die fetus nie behoorlik ontwikkel nie. Daar kan byvoorbeeld 'n probleem wees met die manier waarop die fetus se selle verdeel namate dit groei. 'N Swanger vrou wat alkohol drink (sien fetale alkoholspektrumstoornis) of 'n infeksie soos rubella kry tydens swangerskap, kan ook 'n baba met 'n verstandelike gestremdheid hê.
Probleme by geboorte. As 'n baba probleme ondervind tydens geboorte en geboorte, soos om nie genoeg suurstof te kry nie, kan hy of sy 'n ontwikkelingsgestremdheid hê as gevolg van breinskade.
Blootstelling aan sekere soorte siektes of gifstowwe. Siektes soos kinkhoes, masels of breinvliesontsteking kan intellektuele gestremdheid veroorsaak as mediese sorg vertraag of onvoldoende is. Blootstelling aan gifstowwe soos lood of kwik kan ook die verstandelike vermoë beïnvloed. , wat ongeveer 2 miljard mense wêreldwyd raak, is die grootste voorkombare oorsaak van intellektuele gestremdheid in gebiede van die ontwikkelende wêreld waar jodiumtekort endemies is. Jodiumtekort veroorsaak ook struma, 'n vergroting van die skildklier. Meer algemeen as volwaardige kretinisme, soos verstandelike gestremdheid veroorsaak deur ernstige jodiumtekort genoem word, is ligte gestremdheid van intelligensie. Inwoners van sekere dele van die wêreld, as gevolg van 'n natuurlike tekort en regeringsloosheid, word ernstig geraak deur jodiumtekort. Indië het 500 miljoen aan 'n tekort, 54 miljoen aan struma en 2 miljoen aan kretinisme. Onder ander lande wat deur jodiumtekort geraak word, het China en Kazakstan wydverspreide sout -jodiseringsprogramme ingestel. Maar sedert 2006 het Rusland dit nie gedoen nie. [22] is 'n algemene oorsaak van verminderde intelligensie in dele van die wêreld wat deur hongersnood geraak word, soos Ethiopië en lande wat met lang periodes van oorlogvoering worstel wat die produksie en verspreiding van landbou ontwrig. [23]
Afwesigheid van die boogvormige fasciculus. [24]

Volgens beide die American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities [25] (Intellektuele gestremdheid: definisie, klassifikasie en ondersteuningsstelsels (11de uitgawe) en die American Psychiatric Association [26] Diagnostiese en statistiese handleiding vir geestesversteurings (DSM-IV), moet daar aan drie kriteria voldoen word vir die diagnose van intellektuele gestremdheid: beduidende beperking in algemene verstandelike vermoëns (intellektuele funksionering), beduidende beperkings op een of meer gebiede van aanpasbare gedrag in verskeie omgewings (soos gemeet aan 'n aanpasbare gedragsgradering) skaal, dws kommunikasie, selfhelpvaardighede, interpersoonlike vaardighede en meer), en bewys dat die beperkings duidelik geword het in die kinderjare of adolessensie. Oor die algemeen het mense met intellektuele gestremdhede 'n IK onder 70, maar kliniese diskresie kan nodig wees vir individue met 'n ietwat hoër IK, maar 'n ernstige verswakking in hul aanpasbare funksionering. [11]

Dit word formeel gediagnoseer deur 'n beoordeling van IK en aanpasbare gedrag. 'N Derde toestand wat tydens die ontwikkelingsperiode begin, word gebruik om intellektuele gestremdheid te onderskei van ander toestande, soos traumatiese breinbeserings en demensies (insluitend Alzheimer se siekte).

Intelligensie kwosiënt

Die eerste Engelstalige IK-toets, die Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, is aangepas uit 'n toetsbattery wat ontwerp is vir skoolplasing deur Alfred Binet in Frankryk. Lewis Terman het Binet se toets aangepas en dit bevorder as 'n toets wat 'algemene intelligensie' meet. Terman se toets was die eerste wyd gebruikte verstandstoets om tellings in 'intelligensie -kwosiënt' -vorm (' geestelike ouderdom 'gedeel deur chronologiese ouderdom, vermenigvuldig met 100) aan te meld. Huidige toetse word in 'afwykings-IQ'-vorm behaal, met 'n prestasievlak deur 'n toetsnemer twee standaardafwykings onder die gemiddelde telling vir die toetsnemers se ouderdomsgroep gedefinieer as IQ 70. Tot die mees onlangse hersiening van diagnostiese standaarde, 'n IK van 70 of laer was 'n primêre faktor vir die diagnose van intellektuele gestremdheid, en IK -tellings is gebruik om grade van intellektuele gestremdheid te kategoriseer.

Aangesien die huidige diagnose van intellektuele gestremdheid nie slegs op IK -tellings gebaseer is nie, maar ook die aanpassingsfunksie van 'n persoon in ag moet neem, word die diagnose nie streng gemaak nie. Dit bevat intellektuele tellings, aanpasbare funksionerings tellings van 'n aanpasbare gedragskaal, gebaseer op beskrywings van bekende vermoëns wat deur iemand vertroud is met die persoon, en ook die waarnemings van die assessor -eksaminator wat direk by die persoon kan uitvind wat hy of sy kan verstaan, kommunikeer en dies meer. IK -assessering moet gebaseer wees op 'n huidige toets. Dit stel 'n diagnose in staat om die slaggat van die Flynn -effek te vermy, wat 'n gevolg is van veranderinge in die populasie -IK -toetsprestasie wat die IK -toetsnorme oor tyd verander.

Onderskeid van ander gestremdhede

Intellektuele gestremdheid is klinies 'n subtipe van kognitiewe tekort of gestremdhede wat intellektuele vermoëns beïnvloed, wat 'n breër konsep is en intellektuele tekorte insluit wat te sag is om behoorlik as intellektuele gestremdheid te kwalifiseer, of te spesifiek (soos by spesifieke leergestremdheid), of later verkry in die lewe deur verworwe breinbeserings of neurodegeneratiewe siektes soos demensie. Kognitiewe tekorte kan op enige ouderdom voorkom. Ontwikkelingsgestremdheid is enige gestremdheid wat te wyte is aan probleme met groei en ontwikkeling. Hierdie term bevat baie aangebore mediese toestande wat geen geestelike of intellektuele komponente bevat nie, hoewel dit soms ook as 'n eufemisme vir intellektuele gestremdheid gebruik word. [27]

Beperkings op meer as een gebied

Adaptiewe gedrag, of adaptiewe funksionering, verwys na die vaardighede wat nodig is om onafhanklik te lewe (of op die minimaal aanvaarbare vlak vir ouderdom). Om aanpasbare gedrag te assesseer, vergelyk professionele persone die funksionele vermoëns van 'n kind met dié van ander kinders van dieselfde ouderdom. Om aanpasbare gedrag te meet, gebruik professionele persone gestruktureerde onderhoude, waarmee hulle stelselmatig inligting oor persone se funksionering in die gemeenskap uitlok van mense wat hulle goed ken. Daar is baie aanpassingsgedragskale, en 'n akkurate beoordeling van die kwaliteit van iemand se aanpasbare gedrag vereis ook kliniese oordeel. Sekere vaardighede is belangrik vir aanpasbare gedrag, soos:

soos om aan te trek, die badkamer te gebruik en vaardighede te voed, soos om te verstaan wat gesê word en om te kan antwoord met maats, familielede, eggenote, volwassenes en ander

Ander spesifieke vaardighede kan van kritieke belang wees vir die insluiting van 'n individu in die gemeenskap en om gepaste sosiale gedrag te ontwikkel, byvoorbeeld om bewus te wees van die verskillende sosiale verwagtinge wat verband hou met die belangrikste lewensfases (kinderjare, volwassenheid, ouderdom). Die resultate van 'n Switserse studie dui daarop dat die prestasie van volwassenes met ID in die herkenning van verskillende lewensfases verband hou met spesifieke kognitiewe vermoëns en die tipe materiaal wat gebruik word om hierdie prestasie te toets. [28]

Volgens die meeste definisies word intellektuele gestremdheid meer akkuraat beskou as a gestremdheid eerder as a siekte. Intellektuele gestremdheid kan op baie maniere onderskei word van geestesongesteldheid, soos skisofrenie of depressie. Tans is daar geen 'genesing' vir 'n gevestigde gestremdheid nie, maar met gepaste ondersteuning en onderrig kan die meeste individue baie dinge leer doen. Oorsake, soos aangebore hipotireose, kan as dit vroeg opgespoor word, behandel word om die ontwikkeling van 'n verstandelike gestremdheid te voorkom. [29]

Daar is duisende agentskappe regoor die wêreld wat hulp verleen aan mense met ontwikkelingsgestremdhede. Dit sluit in staatsbeheerde, winsgewende en nie-winsgewende, privaat bestuurde agentskappe. Binne een agentskap kan daar afdelings wees wat woonhuise met volledige personeel insluit, dagrehabilitasieprogramme wat skole benader, werkswinkels waarin mense met gestremdhede werk kan kry, programme wat mense met ontwikkelingsgestremdhede help om werk in die gemeenskap te kry, programme wat mense ondersteun met ontwikkelingsgestremdhede wat hul eie woonstelle het, programme wat hulle help met die grootmaak van hul kinders, en nog vele meer. Daar is ook baie agentskappe en programme vir ouers van kinders met ontwikkelingsgestremdhede.

Daarbenewens is daar spesifieke programme waaraan mense met ontwikkelingsgestremdhede kan deelneem, waarin hulle basiese lewensvaardighede leer. Hierdie 'doelwitte' neem baie langer tyd om te bereik, maar die uiteindelike doel is onafhanklikheid. Dit kan alles wees, van onafhanklikheid in die tandeborsel tot 'n onafhanklike woning. Mense met ontwikkelingsgestremdhede leer regdeur hul lewens en kan selfs laat in hul lewe baie nuwe vaardighede aanleer met die hulp van hul gesinne, versorgers, klinici en die mense wat die pogings van al hierdie mense koördineer.

Daar is vier breë intervensiegebiede wat aktiewe deelname van versorgers, lede van die gemeenskap, klinici en natuurlik die individu (s) met 'n verstandelike gestremdheid moontlik maak. Dit sluit in psigososiale behandelings, gedragsbehandelings, kognitiewe gedragsbehandelings en gesinsgerigte strategieë. [30] Psigososiale behandelings is hoofsaaklik bedoel vir kinders voor en gedurende die voorskoolse jare, aangesien dit die optimale tyd vir intervensie is. [31] Hierdie vroeë intervensie moet die aanmoediging van verkenning, mentorskap in basiese vaardighede, viering van ontwikkelingsontwikkeling, begeleide repetisie en uitbreiding van nuut verworwe vaardighede insluit, beskerming teen skadelike afkeurings, plaag of straf en blootstelling aan 'n ryk en reageerbaar persoon. taalomgewing. [32] 'n Goeie voorbeeld van 'n suksesvolle intervensie is die Carolina Abecedarian-projek wat uitgevoer is met meer as 100 kinders uit gesinne met 'n lae sosio-ekonomiese status wat van kleins af tot voorskool begin het. Die resultate het aangedui dat die kinders op die ouderdom van 2 jaar die toetse hoër was as die kinders in die kontrolegroep, en hulle bly ongeveer 5 punte hoër 10 jaar na afloop van die program. Teen jong volwassenheid het kinders uit die intervensiegroep beter opvoedkundige prestasie, werksgeleenthede en minder gedragsprobleme gehad as hul eweknieë. [33]

Die kernkomponente van gedragsbehandelings sluit in die aanleer van taal en sosiale vaardighede. Gewoonlik word een-tot-een-opleiding aangebied waarin 'n terapeut 'n vormingsprosedure in kombinasie met positiewe versterkings gebruik om die kind te help om lettergrepe uit te spreek totdat woorde voltooi is. Terapeute het soms foto's en visuele hulpmiddels met die doel om spraakvermoë te verbeter, sodat kort sinne oor belangrike daaglikse take (soos badkamergebruik, eet, ens.) Die kind effektief kan kommunikeer. [34] [35] Op 'n soortgelyke manier vind ouer kinders baat by hierdie tipe opleiding, aangesien hulle leer om hul sosiale vaardighede op te skerp, soos om te deel, beurte te maak, instruksies te volg en te glimlag. [36] Terselfdertyd poog 'n beweging bekend as sosiale insluiting om waardevolle interaksies tussen kinders met 'n verstandelike gestremdheid en hul nie-gestremde eweknieë te verhoog. [37] Kognitiewe gedragsbehandelings, 'n kombinasie van die vorige twee behandelingsoorte, behels 'n strategies-metastrategiese leertegniek [ verduideliking nodig ] wat kinders wiskunde, taal en ander basiese vaardighede met betrekking tot geheue en leer leer. Die eerste doel van die opleiding is om die kind te leer om 'n strategiese denker te wees deur kognitiewe verbindings en planne te maak. Dan leer die terapeut die kind om metastrategies te wees deur hulle te leer onderskei tussen verskillende take en bepaal watter plan of strategie by elke taak pas. [38] Uiteindelik verdiep gesinsgerigte strategieë daarin om die gesin te bemagtig met die vaardigheid wat hulle nodig het om hul kind of kinders met 'n verstandelike gestremdheid te ondersteun en aan te moedig. Dit sluit in die algemeen onderrig in oor selfgeldingsvaardighede of tegnieke vir gedragsbestuur, asook hoe om hulp van bure, uitgebreide familie of dagsorgpersoneel te vra. [39] Namate die kind ouer word, word ouers geleer hoe om onderwerpe soos behuising/residensiële sorg, werk en verhoudings te benader. Die uiteindelike doel vir elke ingryping of tegniek is om die kind outonomie en 'n gevoel van onafhanklikheid te gee deur die vaardighede wat hy/sy het, te verwerf. In 'n Cochrane -oorsig van 2019 oor die begin van leesintervensies vir kinders en adolessente met intellektuele gestremdhede, is klein tot matige verbeterings in fonologiese bewustheid, woordlees, dekodering, ekspressiewe en ontvanklike taalvaardighede en leesvlot opgemerk toe hierdie elemente deel was van die onderrigintervensie. [40]

Alhoewel daar geen spesifieke medikasie vir intellektuele gestremdheid is nie, het baie mense met ontwikkelingsgestremdhede verdere mediese komplikasies en kan verskeie medisyne voorgeskryf word. Byvoorbeeld, outistiese kinders met ontwikkelingsvertraging kan antipsigotika of gemoedstabiliseerders voorgeskryf word om hul gedrag te help. Die gebruik van psigotropiese medisyne soos bensodiasepiene by mense met intellektuele gestremdheid vereis monitering en waaksaamheid, aangesien newe -effekte gereeld voorkom en dikwels gediagnoseer word as gedrags- en psigiatriese probleme. [41]

Intellektuele gestremdheid raak ongeveer 2-3% van die algemene bevolking. 75–90% van die mense wat geraak word, het ligte intellektuele gestremdheid. Nie-sindroom of idiopatiese ID is verantwoordelik vir 30-50% van die gevalle. Ongeveer 'n kwart van die gevalle word veroorsaak deur 'n genetiese afwyking. [7] Gevalle van onbekende oorsaak raak ongeveer 95 miljoen mense vanaf 2013 [update]. [9] Dit kom meer gereeld voor by mans en in lande met lae tot middelinkomste. [29]

Intellektuele gestremdheid is deur 'n verskeidenheid name deur die geskiedenis heen gedokumenteer. Gedurende 'n groot deel van die menslike geskiedenis was die samelewing onvriendelik teenoor mense met enige tipe gestremdheid, en mense met verstandelike gestremdhede word algemeen beskou as 'n las op hul gesinne.

Griekse en Romeinse filosowe, wat die redenasievermoë waardeer het, het mense met verstandelike gestremdheid as skaars menslik gering geag. [42] Die oudste fisiologiese siening van verstandelike gestremdheid is in die geskrifte van Hippokrates aan die einde van die vyfde eeu vC, wat geglo het dat dit veroorsaak is deur 'n wanbalans in die vier humors in die brein.

Kalief Al-Walid (r. 705–715) het een van die eerste versorgingshuise vir verstandelik gestremde persone gebou en die eerste hospitaal gebou wat intellektueel gestremdes as deel van sy dienste huisves. Boonop het Al-Walid aan elke verstandelik gestremde persoon 'n versorger toegeken. [43]

Tot en met die Verligting in Europa is sorg en asiel deur gesinne en die kerk verskaf (in kloosters en ander godsdienstige gemeenskappe), met die fokus op die voorsiening van basiese fisiese behoeftes soos kos, skuiling en klere. Negatiewe stereotipes was prominent in sosiale houdings van die tyd.

In die 13de eeu het Engeland verklaar dat mense met verstandelike gestremdhede nie in staat is om besluite te neem of hul sake te bestuur nie. [42] Voogskappe is geskep om hul geldsake oor te neem.

In die 17de eeu het Thomas Willis die eerste beskrywing van intellektuele gestremdheid as 'n siekte gegee. [42] Hy het geglo dat dit veroorsaak word deur strukturele probleme in die brein. Volgens Willis kan die anatomiese probleme óf 'n aangebore toestand wees, óf later in die lewe.

In die 18de en 19de eeu het behuising en sorg wegbeweeg van gesinne en na 'n asielmodel. Mense is geplaas deur of verwyder uit hul gesinne (gewoonlik in die kinderjare) en gehuisves in groot professionele instellings, waarvan baie selfonderhoudend was deur die arbeid van die inwoners. Sommige van hierdie instellings het 'n baie basiese opvoedingsvlak gebied (soos die onderskeid tussen kleure en basiese woordherkenning en syfervaardigheid), maar die meeste fokus slegs op die voorsiening van basiese behoeftes van voedsel, klere en skuiling. Toestande in sulke instellings het baie gewissel, maar die ondersteuning wat verskaf is, was oor die algemeen nie-geïndividualiseerd, met afwykende gedrag en lae vlakke van ekonomiese produktiwiteit wat as 'n las vir die samelewing beskou word. Persone met 'n hoër rykdom kon dikwels hoër sorg verleen, soos tuisversorging of privaat asiel. [44] Swaar kalmerings- en versamelingsmetodes vir ondersteuning was die norm, en die mediese model van gestremdheid het die oorhand gekry. Dienste is gelewer op grond van die relatiewe gemak van die verskaffer, nie op die behoeftes van die individu nie. 'N Opname in 1891 in Kaapstad, Suid -Afrika, toon die verspreiding tussen verskillende fasiliteite. Uit 2046 persone wat ondervra is, was 1,281 in privaat wonings, 120 in die tronk en 645 in asiele, met mans wat byna twee derdes van die getal ondervra verteenwoordig. In situasies met skaarste aan akkommodasie is voorkeur gegee aan wit mans en swart mans (wie se waansin die blanke samelewing bedreig het deur diensverhoudinge en die taboe seksuele kontak met wit vroue te ontwrig). [44]

Aan die einde van die 19de eeu, in reaksie op die van Charles Darwin Oor die oorsprong van spesies, Francis Galton, het selektiewe teel van mense voorgestel om intellektuele gestremdheid te verminder. [42] Vroeg in die 20ste eeu het die eugenetiese beweging wêreldwyd gewild geword. Dit het gelei tot gedwonge sterilisasie en verbod op huwelike in die grootste deel van die ontwikkelde wêreld en is later deur Adolf Hitler gebruik as 'n rede vir die massamoord op mense met verstandelike gestremdhede tydens die Holocaust. Eugenetika is later laat vaar as 'n bose skending van menseregte, en die gebruik van gedwonge sterilisasie en verbod op huwelik is teen die middel van die 20ste eeu deur die grootste deel van die ontwikkelde wêreld gestaak.

In 1905 het Alfred Binet die eerste gestandaardiseerde toets vir die meting van intelligensie by kinders. [42]

Although ancient Roman law had declared people with intellectual disability to be incapable of the deliberate intent to harm that was necessary for a person to commit a crime, during the 1920s, Western society believed they were morally degenerate. [42]

Ignoring the prevailing attitude, Civitans adopted service to people with developmental disabilities as a major organizational emphasis in 1952. Their earliest efforts included workshops for special education teachers and daycamps for children with disabilities, all at a time when such training and programs were almost nonexistent. [45] The segregation of people with developmental disabilities was not widely questioned by academics or policy-makers until the 1969 publication of Wolf Wolfensberger's seminal work "The Origin and Nature of Our Institutional Models", [46] drawing on some of the ideas proposed by SG Howe 100 years earlier. This book posited that society characterizes people with disabilities as deviant, sub-human and burdens of charity, resulting in the adoption of that "deviant" role. Wolfensberger argued that this dehumanization, and the segregated institutions that result from it, ignored the potential productive contributions that all people can make to society. He pushed for a shift in policy and practice that recognized the human needs of those with intellectual disability and provided the same basic human rights as for the rest of the population.

The publication of this book may be regarded as the first move towards the widespread adoption of the social model of disability in regard to these types of disabilities, and was the impetus for the development of government strategies for desegregation. Successful lawsuits against governments and increasing awareness of human rights and self-advocacy also contributed to this process, resulting in the passing in the U.S. of the Civil Rights of Institutionalized Persons Act in 1980.

From the 1960s to the present, most states have moved towards the elimination of segregated institutions. Normalization and deinstitutionalization are dominant. [42] Along with the work of Wolfensberger and others including Gunnar and Rosemary Dybwad, [47] a number of scandalous revelations around the horrific conditions within state institutions created public outrage that led to change to a more community-based method of providing services. [48]

By the mid-1970s, most governments had committed to de-institutionalization and had started preparing for the wholesale movement of people into the general community, in line with the principles of normalization. In most countries, this was essentially complete by the late 1990s, although the debate over whether or not to close institutions persists in some states, including Massachusetts. [49]

In the past, lead poisoning and infectious diseases were significant causes of intellectual disability. Some causes of intellectual disability are decreasing, as medical advances, such as vaccination, increase. Other causes are increasing as a proportion of cases, perhaps due to rising maternal age, which is associated with several syndromic forms of intellectual disability. [ aanhaling nodig ]

Along with the changes in terminology, and the downward drift in acceptability of the old terms, institutions of all kinds have had to repeatedly change their names. This affects the names of schools, hospitals, societies, government departments, and academic journals. For example, the Midlands Institute of Mental Sub-normality became the British Institute of Mental Handicap and is now the British Institute of Learning Disability. This phenomenon is shared with mental health and motor disabilities, and seen to a lesser degree in sensory disabilities. [ aanhaling nodig ]

Terminology

The terms used for this condition are subject to a process called the euphemism treadmill. This means that whatever term is chosen for this condition, it eventually becomes perceived as an insult. Die terme mental retardation en mentally retarded were invented in the middle of the 20th century to replace the previous set of terms, which included "imbecile" [50] [51] and "moron" [52] and are now considered offensive. By the end of the 20th century, these terms themselves have come to be widely seen as disparaging, politically incorrect, and in need of replacement. [53] The term intellectual disability is now preferred by most advocates and researchers in most English-speaking countries. [4] [5]

Die term "mental retardation" was used in the American Psychiatric Association's DSM-IV (1994) and in the World Health Organization's ICD-10 (codes F70–F79). In the next revision, the ICD-11, this term has been replaced by the term "disorders of intellectual development" (codes 6A00–6A04 6A00.Z for the "unspecified" diagnosis code). [54] [55] The term "intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder)" is used in DSM-5 (2013). [11] As of 2013 [update] , "intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder)" is the term that has come into common use by among educational, psychiatric, and other professionals over the past two decades. [11] Because of its specificity and lack of confusion with other conditions, the term "mental retardation" is still sometimes used in professional medical settings around the world, such as formal scientific research and health insurance paperwork. [56]

The several traditional terms that long predate psychiatry are simple forms of abuse in common usage today they are often encountered in such old documents as books, academic papers, and census forms. For example, the British census of 1901 has a column heading including the terms imbecile en feeble-minded. [ aanhaling nodig ]

Vaguer expressions like developmentally disabled, [57] spesiaal, or challenged have been used instead of the term mentally retarded. Die term developmental delay was popular among caretakers and parents of individuals with intellectual disability because vertraging suggests that a person is slowly reaching his or her full potential, rather than having a lifelong condition. [ aanhaling nodig ]

Usage has changed over the years and differed from country to country. Byvoorbeeld, mental retardation in some contexts covers the whole field but previously applied to what is now the mild MR group. Feeble-minded used to mean mild MR in the UK, and once applied in the US to the whole field. "Borderline intellectual functioning" is not currently defined, but the term may be used to apply to people with IQs in the 70s. People with IQs of 70 to 85 used to be eligible for special consideration in the US public education system on grounds of intellectual disability. [ aanhaling nodig ]

Cretin is the oldest and comes from a dialectal French word for Christian. [58] The implication was that people with significant intellectual or developmental disabilities were "still human" (or "still Christian") and deserved to be treated with basic human dignity. Individuals with the condition were considered to be incapable of sinning, thus "Christ-like" in their disposition. This term has not been used in scientific endeavors since the middle of the 20th century and is generally considered a term of abuse. Alhoewel cretin is no longer in use, the term cretinism is still used to refer to the mental and physical disability resulting from untreated congenital hypothyroidism.
Amentia has a long history, mostly associated with dementia. The difference between amentia and dementia was originally defined by time of onset. Amentia was the term used to denote an individual who developed deficits in mental functioning early in life, while dementia included individuals who develop mental deficiencies as adults. Theodor Meynert in the 1890s lectures described amentia as a form of sudden-onset confusion (German: Verwirrtheit), often with hallucinations. [59] This term was long in use in psychiatry in this sense. Emil Kraepelin in the 1910s wrote that “acute confusion (amentia)” is a form of febrile delirium. [59] By 1912, amentia was a classification lumping "idiots, imbeciles, and feeble minded" individuals in a category separate from a dementia classification, in which the onset is later in life. In Russian psychiatry the term “amentia” defines a form of clouding of consciousness, which is dominated by confusion, true hallucinations, incoherence of thinking and speech and chaotic movements. [60] In Russia “amentia” (Russian: аменция ) is not associated with intellectual disability and mean only clouding of consciousness.
Idiot indicated the greatest degree of intellectual disability, where the mental age is two years or less, and the person cannot guard himself or herself against common physical dangers. The term was gradually replaced by the term profound mental retardation (which has itself since been replaced by other terms).
Imbecile indicated an intellectual disability less extreme than idiocy and not necessarily inherited. It is now usually subdivided into two categories, known as severe intellectual disability en moderate intellectual disability.
Moron was defined by the American Association for the Study of the Feeble-minded in 1910, following work by Henry H. Goddard, as the term for an adult with a mental age between eight and twelve mild intellectual disability is now the term for this condition. Alternative definitions of these terms based on IQ were also used. This group was known in UK law from 1911 to 1959–60 as feeble-minded.
Mongolism en Mongoloid idiot were medical terms used to identify someone with Down syndrome, as the doctor who first described the syndrome, John Langdon Down, believed that children with Down syndrome shared facial similarities with Blumenbach's "Mongolian race". The Mongolian People's Republic requested that the medical community cease the use of the term as a referent to intellectual disability. Their request was granted in the 1960s when the World Health Organization agreed that the term should cease being used within the medical community. [61]
In the field of special education, educable (or "educable intellectual disability") refers to ID students with IQs of approximately 50–75 who can progress academically to a late-elementary level. Trainable (or "trainable intellectual disability") refers to students whose IQs fall below 50 but who are still capable of learning personal hygiene and other living skills in a sheltered setting, such as a group home. In many areas, these terms have been replaced by use of "moderate" and "severe" intellectual disability. While the names change, the meaning stays roughly the same in practice.
Retarded comes from the Latin retardare, "to make slow, delay, keep back, or hinder," so mental retardation meant the same as mentally delayed. The term was recorded in 1426 as a "fact or action of making slower in movement or time". The first record of retarded in relation to being mentally slow was in 1895. The term mentally retarded was used to replace terms like idiot, moron, en imbecile omdat retarded was not then a derogatory term. By the 1960s, however, the term had taken on a partially derogatory meaning as well. Die selfstandige naamwoord retard is particularly seen as pejorative a BBC survey in 2003 ranked it as the most offensive disability-related word, ahead of terms such as spastic (or its abbreviation spaz) and mong. [62] The terms mentally retarded en mental retardation are still fairly common, but currently the Special Olympics, Best Buddies, and over 100 other organizations are striving to eliminate their use by referring to the word retard and its variants as the "r-word", in an effort to equate it to the word neger and the associated euphemism "n-word", in everyday conversation. These efforts resulted in federal legislation, known as Rosa's Law, which replaced the term mentally retarded with the term intellectual disability in federal statutes. [4][63][64]
Die term mental retardation was a diagnostic term denoting the group of disconnected categories of mental functioning such as idiot, imbecile, en moron derived from early IQ tests, which acquired pejorative connotations in popular discourse. It acquired negative and shameful connotations over the last few decades due to the use of the words retarded en retard as insults. This may have contributed to its replacement with euphemisms such as mentally challenged of intellectually disabled. Terwyl developmental disability includes many other disorders, developmental disability en developmental delay (for people under the age of 18) are generally considered more polite terms than mental retardation.

Albert Julius Levine and Louis Marks proposed a set of categories in their 1928 book Testing Intelligence and Achievement. [65] Some of the terminologies in the table came from contemporary terms for classifying individuals with intellectual disabilities.

Levine and Marks 1928 IQ classification [66] [67]

IQ Range ("ratio IQ")	IQ Classification
175 and over	Precocious
150–174	Very superior
125–149	Superior
115–124	Very bright
105–114	Bright
95–104	Gemiddeld
85–94	Dull
75–84	Grenslyn
50–74	Morons
25–49	Imbeciles
0–24	Idiots

Verenigde State

In North America, intellectual disability is subsumed into the broader term developmental disability, which also includes epilepsy, autism, cerebral palsy, and other disorders that develop during the developmental period (birth to age 18). Because service provision is tied to the designation "developmental disability", it is used by many parents, direct support professionals, and physicians. In the United States, however, in school-based settings, the more specific term mental retardation or, more recently (and preferably), intellectual disability, is still typically used, and is one of 13 categories of disability under which children may be identified for special education services under Public Law 108–446.
Die frase intellectual disability is increasingly being used as a synonym for people with significantly below-average cognitive ability. These terms are sometimes used as a means of separating general intellectual limitations from specific, limited deficits as well as indicating that it is not an emotional or psychological disability. It is not specific to congenital disorders such as Down syndrome.

The American Association on Mental Retardation changed its name to the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) in 2007, and soon thereafter changed the names of its scholarly journals [68] to reflect the term "intellectual disability". In 2010, the AAIDD released its 11th edition of its terminology and classification manual, which also used the term intellectual disability. [69] [70]

Verenigde Koninkryk

In the UK, mental handicap had become the common medical term, replacing mental subnormality in Scotland and mental deficiency in England and Wales, until Stephen Dorrell, Secretary of State for Health for the United Kingdom from 1995 to 1997, changed the NHS's designation to learning disability. [71] The new term is not yet widely understood, and is often taken to refer to problems affecting schoolwork (the American usage), which are known in the UK as "learning difficulties". British social workers may use "learning difficulty" to refer to both people with intellectual disability and those with conditions such as dyslexia. [72] In education, "learning difficulties" is applied to a wide range of conditions: "specific learning difficulty" may refer to dyslexia, dyscalculia or developmental coordination disorder, while "moderate learning difficulties", "severe learning difficulties" and "profound learning difficulties" refer to more significant impairments. [73] [74]

In England and Wales between 1983 and 2008, the Mental Health Act 1983 defined "mental impairment" and "severe mental impairment" as "a state of arrested or incomplete development of mind which includes significant/severe impairment of intelligence and social functioning and is associated with abnormally aggressive or seriously irresponsible conduct on the part of the person concerned." [75] As behavior was involved, these were not necessarily permanent conditions: they were defined for the purpose of authorizing detention in hospital or guardianship. Die term mental impairment was removed from the Act in November 2008, but the grounds for detention remained. However, English statute law uses mental impairment elsewhere in a less well-defined manner—e.g. to allow exemption from taxes—implying that intellectual disability without any behavioral problems is what is meant.

A BBC poll conducted in the United Kingdom came to the conclusion that 'retard' was the most offensive disability-related word. [76] On the reverse side of that, when a contestant on Celebrity Big Brother live used the phrase "walking like a retard", despite complaints from the public and the charity Mencap, the communications regulator Ofcom did not uphold the complaint saying "it was not used in an offensive context [. ] and had been used light-heartedly". It was, however, noted that two previous similar complaints from other shows were upheld. [77]

Australië

In the past, Australia has used British and American terms interchangeably, including "mental retardation" and "mental handicap". Today, "intellectual disability" is the preferred and more commonly used descriptor. [78]

People with intellectual disabilities are often not seen as full citizens of society. Person-centered planning and approaches are seen as methods of addressing the continued labeling and exclusion of socially devalued people, such as people with disabilities, encouraging a focus on the person as someone with capacities and gifts as well as support needs. The self-advocacy movement promotes the right of self-determination and self-direction by people with intellectual disabilities, which means allowing them to make decisions about their own lives.

Until the middle of the 20th century, people with intellectual disabilities were routinely excluded from public education, or educated away from other typically developing children. Compared to peers who were segregated in special schools, students who are mainstreamed or included in regular classrooms report similar levels of stigma and social self-conception, but more ambitious plans for employment. [79] As adults, they may live independently, with family members, or in different types of institutions organized to support people with disabilities. About 8% currently live in an institution or a group home. [80]

In the United States, the average lifetime cost of a person with an intellectual disability amounts to $223,000 per person, in 2003 US dollars, for direct costs such as medical and educational expenses. [80] The indirect costs were estimated at $771,000, due to shorter lifespans and lower than average economic productivity. [80] The total direct and indirect costs, which amount to a little more than a million dollars, are slightly more than the economic costs associated with cerebral palsy, and double that associated with serious vision or hearing impairments. [80] Of the costs, about 14% is due to increased medical expenses (not including what is normally incurred by the typical person), and 10% is due to direct non-medical expenses, such as the excess cost of special education compared to standard schooling. [80] The largest amount, 76%, is indirect costs accounting for reduced productivity and shortened lifespans. [80] Some expenses, such as ongoing costs to family caregivers or the extra costs associated with living in a group home, were excluded from this calculation. [80]

The law treats person with intellectual disabilities differently than those without intellectual disabilities. Their human rights and freedoms, including the right to vote, the right to conduct business, enter into a contract, enter into marriage, right to education, are often limited. The courts have upheld some of these limitations and found discrimination in others. The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which sets minimum standards for the rights of persons with disabilities, has been ratified by more than 180 countries. In several U.S. states, and several European Union states, persons with intellectual disabilities are disenfranchised. [81] [82] The European Court of Human Rights ruled in Alajos Kiss v. Hungary that Hungary violated the applicant's rights by a blank disenfranchisement of persons with intellectual disabilities who did not hold legal capacity. [83]

People with intellectual disabilities are usually at a higher risk of living with complex health conditions such as epilepsy and neurological disorders, gastrointestinal disorders, and behavioral and psychiatric problems compared to people without disabilities. [84] Adults also have a higher prevalence of poor social determinants of health, behavioral risk factors, depression, diabetes, and poor or fair health status than adults without intellectual disability.

In the United Kingdom people with intellectual disability live on average 16 years less than the general population. Some of the barriers that exist for people with ID accessing quality healthcare include: communication challenges, service eligibility, lack of training for healthcare providers, diagnostic overshadowing, and absence of targeted health promotion services. [85] [86] Key recommendations from the CDC for improving the health status for people with intellectual disabilities include: improve access to health care, improve data collection, strengthen the workforce, include people with ID in public health programs, and prepare for emergencies with people with disabilities in mind. [87]

Ancient Jewish Education of Children and Use of Scripture

How did the Ancient Jews learn the Bible? From an early age the Jews were taught to learn Scripture “by heart.” That is, they memorized Scripture.

The Jewish educational system sought to isolate itself from other cultural influences. An anecdotal story show that the Jewish community and school were not interested in propagating outside cultures, influences or educational methods inside their educational system:

“…In the Talmud there is a story of a progressive young Rabbi who wished to study Greek on the grounds that he had mastered the Law. An older Rabbi reminded him of the worlds of Joshua: ‘This book of the Law shall not depart out of thy mouth but thou shall meditate therein day and night.’ ‘Go then and consider’ he said, ‘which is the hour which is neither of the day or of the night, and in it thou mayest study Greek wisdom.’”

Education a Priority

In the ancient Jewish community, education for children took a high priority. Barclay goes so far as to state, “It would not be wrong to say that for the Jew the child was the most important person in the community.” Examining the words of Josephus, Barclay may be correct. Josephus writes, “Our ground is good, and we work it to the utmost, but our chief ambition is for the education of our children…We take most pains of all with the instruction of children, and esteem the observation of the laws, and the piety corresponding with them, the most important affair of our whole life.”

This dedication to education in the Jewish community made them one of the most literate communities during the time period, “So widespread and far-reaching was this education in New Testament times, that A.C. Bouquet says that it was an ‘age of the widest literacy for eighteen hundred years to come.’”
Memory of Scripture

Because Scripture is the Divine revelation of God, the Jewish community put emphasis on learning the Scripture from an early age, “Philo writes: ‘Since Jews esteem their laws as divine revelations, and are instructed in the knowledge of them from their earliest youth, they bear the image of the Law in their souls…’” The preservation of the divine writing was to be established not only on scrolls, but in the memory of every Israelite. As noted, this remembrance began at youth, “The ideal of instruction is oral teaching, and the worthiest shrine of truths that must not die is the memory and heart of the faithful disciple.”

Scripture Learned at an Early Age

The ancient Jews began the education of their children at the age of five to seven. “There is a late addendum to the fifth book of the Sayings of the Fathers, which sets out the ages of man:

‘At five years old, Scripture at ten years, Mishnah at thirteen, the commandments at fifteen, Talmud…’”

But the Rabbis felt that a child was never too young to begin hearing, learning and being impressed with the words of Scripture, and in fact recognized that this process of learning was most beneficial at an early age, “Rabbi Abujah said: ‘He who learns as a lad, to what is he like? To ink written on fresh paper. And he who learns when he is old, to what is he like? To ink written on paper that has already been used.’”

Religious Learning at Home

Even with their high value upon education in school, the true place of religious learning was to be the home. It was in the home that catechesis was to take place foremost with the father of the house teaching the children the Torah, “As soon as a child can speak (that is, after his third year) he is to be instructed in the Law by his father.” Barclay continues, “”From the fourth year it is the duty of the father to begin to initiate him into the great truths, for land and religion begin when the child can speak distinctly.”

Speaking Scripture

The first thing a Jewish child was taught, after he was old enough to speak, were two important texts from Scripture, “As for actual instruction, as soon as he could speak the child was taught to memorise and to say the two texts: ‘Hear, O Israel: the Lord our God is one Lord,’ and, ‘Moses commanded us a law, even the inheritance of the congregation of Jacob.’”

In addition, when attending religious festivals, the father was to explain to his children the meaning behind the festivals and instruct them God’s graciousness as shown in history. They synagogue services were also an opportunity to learn, “The characteristic word in connection with the Synagogue in the New Testament is didaskein, to teach.”

Scripture Alone the Textbook

The backbone of all ancient Jewish education was Scripture alone, “It has always to be remembered that Jewish education was entirely religious education. There was no text-book except the Scriptures all primary education was preparation for reading the Law and all higher education was the reading and the study of it.” Barclay continues, “The Jews were ‘the people of the book’ not because each individual one of them possessed the book, but because the book was the container of the law of life, which was inserted into their minds, and graven upon their hearts, by oral teaching.” This exemplifies what has been stated above under the exegesis of Deuteronomy 18:18-21.

Scripture Learned by Toil

Of course the learning ‘by heart’ of Scripture was no easy task, and required dedication and hard work, “The Jew never pretended that this was easy. Such knowledge was only to be won at the cost of toil. A man cannot inherit his father’s knowledge, as he might his fortune…Rabbi Joses the Priest said: ‘Give thyself trouble to learn the Law, for it is not obtained by inheritance.’”

Ancient Cities (6th Century B.C. — 4th Century AD)

Like their tribal ancestors, the Greeks displayed some preference for privacy. And, unlike their primitive ancestors, the Greeks had the means to do something about it. University of Leicester’ Samantha Burke found that the Greeks used their sophisticated understanding of geometry to create housing with the mathematically minimum exposure to public view while maximizing available light.

However, Athenians penchant for solitude was not without its influential critics:

“For where men conceal their ways from one another in darkness rather than light, there no man will ever rightly gain either his due honour or office or the justice that is befitting”

Athenian philosophy proved far more popular than their architecture. In Greece’s far less egalitarian successor, Rome, the landed gentry built their homes with wide open gardens. Turning one’s house into a public museum was an ostentatious display of wealth. Though, the rich seemed self-aware of their unfortunate trade-off:

“Great fortune has this characteristic, that it allows nothing to be concealed, nothing hidden it opens up the homes of princes, and not only that but their bedrooms and intimate retreats, and it opens up and exposes to talk all the arcane secrets”

Pliny the Elder, ‘The Natural History’, circa 77 A.D.

The majority of Romans lived in crowded apartments, with walls thin enough to hear every noise. “Think of Ancient Rome as a giant campground,” writes Angela Alberto in A Day in the life of Ancient Rome.

And, thanks to the Rome’s embrace of public sex, there was less of a motivation to make it taboo—especially considering the benefits.

“Baths, drink and sex corrupt our bodies, but baths, drink and sex make life worth living”

Scientists have had a difficult time identifying the cause of the epidemic

The first cocoliztli epidemic happened in 1545, and it was so devastating that it forced the abandonment of entire villages, including a Mixtec village in Oaxaca, where researchers uncovered skeletons believed to have been victims of the first occurrence of the disease. A second outbreak hit in 1576, right around the time survivors were probably starting to relax and think the pestilence was a thing of the past. Volgens Die voog, the second epidemic killed half of the region's surviving population.

It wasn't until this century that researchers finally started to put two and two together, based on historical accounts of the disease and the high death toll. In 2006, research published in FEMS Microbiology Letters examined census data from 1570 and 1580, and they found a population loss of 51.36 percent, which is pretty astonishing over such a short time period. The research also determined that the epidemic began in the valleys of central Mexico, and although losses were heavy in the indigenous population, the Spanish population was hardly affected at all. This research identified cocoliztli as a probable cause for the final collapse of the Aztec culture, though it was unable to precisely identify the pathogen responsible for the disease.

Why you should know the history of special education

If we were to travel back in time a little over 100 years ago, we would see a sight that would turn our stomachs. A child that had intellectual or physical disabilities would have had no access to school or would have been institutionalized.

The current special education system in the United States is a product of many different events and influences that have occurred throughout the years. Both political and social issues have played a significant role in the evolution of special education. Specifically, the key players have been parent advocates and the civil rights movement.

History of Special Education

In the 1920’s and 1930’s special classrooms began to be created within the schools. Classrooms were created for students who could not keep up with students in the general education class. This system continued through the 󈧶s. As time went on, negative outcomes became apparent.

Students in the special education classrooms were seen as unable to learn any academic skills. At that time, researchers stepped into to study the effectiveness of special education. Their findings revealed that those students who were integrated into the general education classroom were doing better learning more than those students in a separate classroom. (Friend, Bursuck 2015).

As a response, two game changers emerged. Parent advocacy and the civil rights movement changed the way we see our special education system as we see it today. Parents of groups of children with disabilities began to organize and unite. They started to speak out against the traditional practices and demanded that their children had a right to the same educational experiences as other children.

The second influence was the civil rights movement. If separate but equal was unconstitutional for race, it was unconstitutional when it came to ability.

As a result, three laws were created to protect children with disabilities and also to prevent discrimination.

Laws and Regulations

The first law that was created was section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Section 504 was created to prevent discrimination against all individuals with disabilities in programs receiving federal funds.

To take the rehabilitation law one more step, in 1990, George H.W. Bush signed legislation called Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). The ADA goes beyond the classroom to protect individuals with disabilities in workplaces, buildings, and transportation. Even telecommunications are also required to make accommodations for individuals with disabilities. The ADA is seen today as one of the most significant legislation ever passed for individuals with disabilities (Friend, Bursuck. 2015).

The third law that was created was Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA). As a parent of children with hearing loss, understanding IDEA is extremely important.

“As a parent of children with hearing loss, understanding IDEA is extremely important.”

The law was originally established under the Education for All Handicapped Children Act in 1975 but has evolved throughout the years. Today, IDEA has six core principles that are in place as the foundation of the law.

Under this principle, students with a disability are “entitled” to attend public schools and receive educational services to address their specific needs. This includes technology, materials, and even set at no cost to the parent. (Friend, Bursuck. 2015).

LRE is the idea that students with a disability should not be placed in a separate classroom or school. The goal for each child is to have them in a classroom that will limit them the least. In some cases, a separate classroom or setting will be the best fit for a child, but for most children, the general education class setting will be the LRE.

Each child is entitled to their own individualized education plan (IEP). What is fair and equal to one child, will be different than for another child. A team of professionals writes an IEP with the child’s parents.

Nondiscriminatory evaluation refers to the tools that are used for evaluating a student. The tools should not discriminate based on race, culture or disability.

The individualized education plan for each child is seen as a legal document and cannot be changed. A specific set of informal and formal procedures must take place.

Under this principle, students are protected from being told that the school can not meet the needs of their child and should go to another school. The district is responsible for providing the services.

What does this mean for today?

There are a number of vital pieces that we walk away with after learning about the history of special education. The first is to know that change is possible. We have come a long way in the special education system from where it was over 100 years ago, but we still have a long way to go.

“We have come a long way in the special education system from where it was over 100 years ago, but we still have a long way to go.”

More horizons are still out there. Support for individuals with disabilities in private schools and universities are still needed. Equipping teachers to know how to teach both mainstream and special education is more important than ever. The fight is not over.

However, we can learn the vital role that parent advocates play. Parents not only have a voice, but they have legal rights to ensure that their children have a fair and equal education. With knowledge and persistence, parents can make change happen.

All advocates for individuals with disabilities, need to be informed and aware of how any new legislation will impact the access to a fair and equal education. For example, last February, the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative serves wrote that Betsy DeVoss, Education Secretary, had a total of 72 guidance documents that have been rescinded due to being “outdated, unnecessary, or ineffective.” It has been unclear exactly how this will impact special education. But, as we move forward, it is vital to be vigilant about current events. We need to understand current law, including the rights of those with disabilities and the rights parents have and the impact that changes would have on the rights for ourselves and our children.

Today, there are many supports that are legally in place to accommodate students with hearing loss. Specifically, students are entitled to an IEP under the Individuals with Disability Education Act. Including access to technology such as FM systems at no cost to the parents. The law states that we are not looking for the “best” education, but “equal and fair.” Arguing that an FM system, sign language interpreter, or appropriate seating, are examples of accommodations that can be made to make for an equal and fair education. Even children with mild to moderate hearing loss need access to an FM system in the classroom.

Special Educator and advocate, Dr. Jennifer Buss at Lewis University, says the best way that parents can advocate for their children with hearing loss is to see their child as individuals and not compare them to other children.

“…the best way that parents can advocate for their children with hearing loss is to see their child as individuals and not compare them to other children.”

What is best for one child might not be best for your child even in the hearing loss world.

The ranges of hearing loss, type of hearing loss, and personal background will impact each child differently. Inclusion is best for some many, but not all. The way the law is currently set up, each child has their own IEP. Parents have a voice to advocate what they believe is most beneficial for their own child’s education.

Knowing the history of special education in the United States equips parents, teachers, and advocates to be aware of where we have come from.

Our special education system has transformed over the past century, but we still have a long way to go. For parents of children with disabilities, it is vital that they know their legal rights under federal law.

Furthermore, parents cannot underestimate their roles as advocates. Throughout history, they have created incredible and much-needed change in the US education system. Fighting for a child’s right to an equal education might be one of the most powerful roles a parent has.

Do you have any tips for fighting for your child’s education? Please let us know in the comments!

Historians confirm what the Bible says about Jesus.

Not only do we have well-preserved copies of the original manuscripts, we also have testimony from both Jewish and Roman historians.

The gospels report that Jesus of Nazareth performed many miracles, was executed by the Romans, and rose from the dead. Numerous ancient historians back the Bible's account of the life of Jesus and his followers:

Cornelius Tacitus (A.D. 55-120), an historian of first-century Rome, is considered one of the most accurate historians of the ancient world. 8 An excerpt from Tacitus tells us that the Roman emperor Nero "inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class. called Christians. . Christus [Christ], from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus. " 9

Flavius Josephus, a Jewish historian (A.D. 38-100), wrote about Jesus in his Jewish Antiquities. From Josephus, "we learn that Jesus was a wise man who did surprising feats, taught many, won over followers from among Jews and Greeks, was believed to be the Messiah, was accused by the Jewish leaders, was condemned to be crucified by Pilate, and was considered to be resurrected." 10

Suetonius, Pliny the Younger, and Thallus also wrote about Christian worship and persecution that is consistent with New Testament accounts.

Even the Jewish Talmud, certainly not biased toward Jesus, concurs about the major events of his life. Van die Talmud, "we learn that Jesus was conceived out of wedlock, gathered disciples, made blasphemous claims about himself, and worked miracles, but these miracles are attributed to sorcery and not to God." 11

This is remarkable information considering that most ancient historians focused on political and military leaders, not on obscure rabbis from distant provinces of the Roman Empire. Yet ancient historians (Jews, Greeks and Romans) confirm the major events that are presented in the New Testament, even though they were not believers themselves.

Nicolas's Crusade

There have also been accounts of a German Children’s Crusade taking place in 1212. This was purportedly led by a child called Nicolas, who said he had 20,000 followers. He was thought to have the same dream as Stephen, and planned to take Jerusalem back from the Muslims.

Nicolas’ crusade also included religious men and unmarried women, so it was not fully considered a Children’s Crusade. Despite that, their dangerous journey across the Alps led to many dying from cold, including the adults. However, those who made it across pushed onto Italy.

Having arrived in Rome, the remaining crusaders met with the pope who praised their bravery. However, he told them that they were too young to be successful in such a venture and sent them back to Germany. Sadly, many of them did not survive the journey back, while a group who boarded a ship in the Italian port of Pisa bound for the Hold Land were never heard from again.

Although both Children’s Crusades were a disaster, historians argue that they do highlight the importance of religion and Jerusalem in particular to everyday people living in the Middle Ages.

BIBLIOGRAFIE

Amit-Talai, Vered, and Helena Wulff, eds. 1995. Youth Cultures: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. Londen: Routledge.

Austin, Joe, and Michael Willard, eds. 1998. Generations of Youth: Youth Cultures and History in Twentieth-Century America. New York: New York University Press.

Brake, Michael. 1985. Comparative Youth Culture. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Fass, Paula S. 1977. The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s. New York: Oxford University Press.

Gelder, Ken, and Sarah Thornton, eds. 1997. The Subcultures Reader. Londen: Routledge.

Inness, Sherrie, ed. 1998. Delinquents and Debutantes: Twentieth Century American Girls' Culture. New York: New York University Press.

Kett, Joseph. 1977. Rites of Passage: Adolescence in America 1790 to the Present. New York: Basiese boeke.

Levi, Giovanni, and Jean-Claude Schmitt, eds. 1997. A History of Young People in the West, Vol. 1. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wanneer het mense verstaan waar kinders vandaan kom?

Thomas Jefferson