Olympia

Olympia

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Olympia was 'n lewendige antieke Griekse stad. Daar word geglo dat die plek van Olympia vanaf 3000 vC bewoon is, maar dit was na die val van die Mykeense beskawing dat die stad begin floreer het, en teen 900 vC is dit reeds as 'n belangrike godsdienstige plek beskou.

Olympia geskiedenis

In 776 vC is die eerste Olimpiese Spele in die stad gehou ter ere van die Griekse god, Zeus. Die spele by Olympia was 'n nasionale byeenkoms en het deelnemers en toeskouers van regoor die land gelok, wat die status van Olympia verhoog het. Hulle sou tot 394 nC voortduur toe die Romeinse keiser Theodosius I hulle 'n 'heidense kultus' beskou het.

Met verloop van tyd het die stad begin ontwikkel en groei. Die resultaat van hierdie geleidelike groei kan vandag op Olympia gesien word deur terreine soos die skatkamers, die tempel van Hera, beide van godsdienstige belang en vervat in die heilige gebied bekend as die Altis en die Pelopion, die vermeende graf van die mitiese Pelops. Dit is omstreeks 600 vC gebou.

Selfs die stadion waarin die Olimpiese Spele gespeel is, is opgegradeer, 'n doelgeboude gebied wat in ongeveer 560 vC gebou is en ongeveer 50 000 mense kan huisves. Die oorblyfsels van hierdie indrukwekkende stadion is vandag nog sigbaar.

Olympia bereik sy hoogtepunt gedurende die klassieke tydperk en dit was op hierdie tydstip dat baie van die ander plekke wat nou daar gesien kan word, gebou is, veral die tempel van Zeus. Dit was 'n groot godsdienstige struktuur waarvan die ruïnes in die Altis -omgewing geleë was.

Die Tempel van Zeus is later heeltemal verwoes, eers deur vuur en daarna in 'n aardbewing. Argeoloë kon egter verskeie beeldhouwerke en artefakte opgrawe wat vermoedelik van die gebou afkomstig was, wat nou in die nabygeleë Olympia Archaeological Museum te sien is.

Ander indrukwekkende terreine by Olympia is later gedurende die Hellenistiese tydperk gebou. Dit sluit die oorblyfsels van die 4de eeu vC in Philippeion gedenkteken, opgedra aan koning Filips II van Masedonië en sy gesin (wat Alexander die Grote, Philip se seun, insluit).

Daar is ook verskeie ander indrukwekkende terreine, waarvan baie gedurende die Romeinse tydperk gebou is.

Olympia vandag

Olympia is goed gemerk, wat dit maklik maak om deur die webwerf te gaan en te verstaan ​​hoe dit in sy bloeitydperk kon lyk. As u meer wil weet oor Olympia, kan u die Olympia Argeologiese Museum besoek.

Die antieke stadion is een van die besienswaardighede wat u moet sien, en baie besoekers toets hul spoed tot vandag toe. Dit was hier waar die gewigstoot tydens die Olimpiese Spele in 2004 plaasgevind het.

Daar is ook 'n Museum vir die geskiedenis van die Olimpiese Spele by Olympia.

Om by Olympia te kom

Om Olympia vanaf Athene te bereik, neem ongeveer 4 uur per motor. Busse ry ook tussen Olympia en die Griekse hoofstad, hoewel toere nie eendag moontlik is nie, gegewe die afstand.

Olympia is ongeveer 2 uur se ry van Patras af en 2 uur se ry van Tripoli in die Sentraal -Peloponnesos.

Parkeerplek is op die perseel beskikbaar.


Olympia

Olympia, geleë in die westelike Peloponnesos, was 'n antieke Griekse heiligdom wat toegewy is aan die aanbidding van Zeus, ter ere van wie die Pan-Helleense Olimpiese Spele elke vier jaar van 776 vC tot 393 nC gehou is. Olympia word deur UNESCO as 'n wêrelderfenisgebied gelys.

Die eerste argeologiese rekord van wonings, wat eers in die tweede millennium vC bewoon is, dateer uit 1900 tot 1600 v.G.J. Die heuwel Kronion op die terrein was miskien die eerste plek van aanbidding, gewy aan Kronos. Ander heilige geboue aan die voet van die heuwel in die heilige bos van wilde olyfbome, of Altis, dui egter aan dat ander gode aanbid is, soos Gaia, Themis, Aphrodite en Pelops. Met die afstammeling van Wes -Griekse stamme na die Peloponnesos, was dit egter Zeus, die vader van die Olympiese gode, wat die dominante kultusfiguur in Olympia sou word.

Advertensie

Die eerste groot gebou op die terrein was die Heraion, 'n tempel opgedra aan Hera wat omstreeks 650-600 vC gebou is. In die 5de eeu vC het die heiligdom sy voorspoed bereik, en 'n massiewe Doriese tempel van 6 x 13 kolomme is voltooi in 457 VHJ om 'n groot kultusbeeld van Zeus te huisves. Die tempel, wat deur Libon van Elis ontwerp is, was destyds die grootste in Griekeland en was 64,12 m x 27,68 m met kolomme van 10,53 m hoog. Die voorkant van die tempel het 'n pragtige beeldhouwerk vertoon: aan die oostekant die mitiese strydwa tussen Pelops en Oinomaos, en op die westelike voorkant 'n Centauromachy met die majestueuse sentrale figuur van Apollo. Metope uit die tempel verteenwoordig die arbeid van Hercules. Die standbeeld van Zeus in die tempel is deur Phidias (wat aan die Parthenon en sy standbeeld van Athena gewerk het) en was 'n voorstelling van 12 m hoog van goud en ivoor van Zeus wat op 'n troon sit en beskou word as een van die sewe wonders van die antieke Wêreld. Ander belangrike bouprojekte deur die eeue was baddens en 'n swembad (5de eeu v.G.J.), die nuwe stadion met dakke vir toeskouers (middel 4de eeu v.G.J.) palaistra (3de eeu vC), a gimnasium (2de eeu v.G.J.), hippodroom (780 m lank), die groot Leonidaion- of gastehuise (330 v.C.) en Theikoloi (priesterwoning).

Sportbyeenkomste het oorspronklik verband gehou met begrafnisrituele, byvoorbeeld die begrafniswedstryde wat deur Achilles gestig is ter ere van Patroklos in Homeros Ilias. Sommige mitologiese rekeninge erken Zeus dat hy die Spele begin het om sy oorwinning oor Kronos te vier, en volgens ander rekeninge het Pelops dit begin ter ere van Oinomaos. Sport, 'n gesonde liggaam en die mededingingsgees was in elk geval 'n groot deel van die Griekse opvoeding, en dit is dus nie verbasend dat georganiseerde atletiekwedstryde op 'n stadium geskep sou word nie.

Advertensie

Die eerste Olimpiese Spele is in 776 vC op die eerste volmaan na die somersonstilstand gehou. Die wenner van die eerste en enigste geleentheid, die stadion voetrenne (een lengte van die stadionbaan, 600 voet of 192 m), was Koroibos van Elis, en van toe af is elke oorwinnaar aangeteken en elke Olimpiade na hulle vernoem, wat ons die eerste akkurate chronologie van die Griekse wêreld gegee het. Gedurende 'n drie-maande Pan-Helleense wapenstilstand het atlete en soveel as 40 000 toeskouers van regoor Griekeland gekom om aan die Spele deel te neem. Individue en stadstate het offers gebring aan Zeus, wat geld, standbeelde (insluitend die pragtige Nike van Paionios, ongeveer 424 v.C., en die Hermes van Praxiteles, laat in die 4de eeu v.C.), bronsstutte, skilde, helms en wapens insluit. Olympia word 'n lewende museum vir Griekse kuns en kultuur. Baie stede het ook skatkamers gebou - klein, maar indrukwekkende geboue om hul aanbod te huisves en die aansien van hul stad te verhoog.

Met verloop van tyd is ander geleenthede bygevoeg tot die Spele, soos langer voetwedlope, stoei, boks, wa-wedrenne, diskus, spiesgooi, spring en die vyfkamp. Op sy hoogtepunt was daar 18 geleenthede wat oor vyf dae versprei was. Dit was egter altyd die oorspronklike stadion wat die belangrikste gebeurtenis gebly het. Oorwinnaars het krone olyfblare en 'n olyftak uit die bang bos gekry, maar nog belangriker is dat hulle heerlikheid, roem en in werklike sin historiese onsterflikheid verower het.

Teken in vir ons gratis weeklikse e -pos nuusbrief!

'N Tweede belangrike geleentheid wat by Olympia gehou is, was die Heraia -spele vir vroue, wat elke vier jaar gehou is ter ere van die godin, Hera. Kinders, adolessente en jong vroue het in afsonderlike voetwedlope meer as 500 voet van die stadionbaan (160 m) gehardloop. Pryse vir oorwinnaars was olyfkrone en die reg om 'n portret van hulself op die webwerf op te stel. Die verantwoordelikheid vir die organisering van beide speletjies en vir die instandhouding van die webwerf wanneer dit nie gebruik word nie, lê by die Eleans.

Die Spele het deur die Hellenistiese tydperk voortgegaan met die opvallende argitektoniese toevoeging van die Philippeion, 'n sirkelvormige kolonnegebou wat deur Filips II van Masedonië opgerig is en wat goue standbeelde van die koninklike familie bevat het (ongeveer 338 vC). Die Romeine het, hoewel hulle die godsdiensbetekenis van die Spele weinig ag geslaan het, hulle hoog geag en ondanks die poging van Sulla in 80 v.G.J. om die Spele permanent na Rome te verskuif, het hulle Olympia bly versier met nuwe geboue, warm bad, fonteine ​​(veral die Nymphaion van Herodes Atticus, 150 nC), en beelde. Die bekendste was dat keiser Nero daarna gestreef het om die glorie van die Olimpiese oorwinning in 67 nC te wen, en deelgeneem het aan die wedloop wat hy deelgeneem het, en dit was verbasend.

Advertensie

Met die besluit van keiser Theodosios om alle kultuspraktyke te verbied, het die Spele in 393 CE tot 'n einde gekom na 'n reeks van 293 Olimpiese Spele oor meer as 'n millennium. Die terrein het geleidelik agteruitgegaan, is gedeeltelik verwoes onder die bevel van keiser Theodosios II in 426 nC en is oorgeneem deur 'n Christelike gemeenskap wat in die vroeë Bisantynse periode 'n basiliek op die terrein gebou het. Aardbewings in 522 en 551 nC het baie van die oorblywende ruïnes vernietig, en slik van die nabygeleë riviere Alpheios en Kladeos het die terrein uiteindelik bedek totdat dit in 1829 HJ deur die Franse Argeologiese Sending herontdek is en stelselmatige opgrawing deur die Duitse Argeologiese Instituut vanaf 1875 HJ.


Olympia - Geskiedenis

Olympia is een van die bekendste skilderye van die bekende skilder Édouard Manet. Die meesterstuk is 'n olieverf op doek. Die afmetings van die skilderye is 51 by 74,8 duim. Die Olympia is in 1863 geverf en deur Frankryk verkry in 1890. Dit word tans vertoon in Musée d ’Orsay, Parys.

Manet en kontroversies

Manet se werke het sinoniem geword met omstrede. Sy vorige werk The Luncheon on the Grass het oproer veroorsaak. Sy nuwe skildery genoem Olympia is die eerste keer in 1865 vertoon. Dit het 'n baie groter woede veroorsaak, aangesien konformiste en konserwatiewes van die destydse samelewing ontsteld was oor die brutale naaktheid wat in die skildery uitgebeeld word. Dit is onmiddellik as onwelvoeglik vulgêr bestempel.

Die kunswerk is die eerste keer in Parys -salon uitgestal. Die administrasie daar moes ekstra veiligheidsmaatreëls tref om te verhoed dat die hardliners dit vernietig. Nie almal was egter teen Manet se werk nie. Hy het ook ondersteuners wat sy skildery van die naakte vrou waardeer as 'n vorm van die kunstenaar se voorstelling van die werklike wêreld.

Rede vir minagting

Die destydse gehoor kon die onverskrokke uiteensetting wat Manet geskilder het, nie verteer nie. Dit was nie soseer die naaktheid wat mense ontstel het nie. Die kykers was geskok oor die brutale voorkoms wat die kunstenaar die vrou gegee het. Dit is meer 'n uitdagende blik, die van 'n hofmeester, waarmee mense nie 'n verhouding wou hê nie. Die hele uitbeelding was vet, en 'n bietjie te veel om deur die konserwatiewe samelewing van die 19de eeu te aanvaar.

Die skildery

Olympia is soos almal 'n naakte skildery ken. Die kunstenaar het nie probeer om die naaktheid te bedek nie. Hy wou miskien die effek dramatiseer, want daar staan ​​'n volledig geklede huishulp langs die naakte vrou. Die kunstenaar het in werklikheid 'n skerp kontras geskep wat opvallend is en die naaktheid duideliker maak. 'N Aantal besonderhede in die skildery wys daarop dat die model wat deur Manet gekies is, 'n hofman was.

Die vrou wat heeltemal uitgetrek is, word op 'n oosterse stoel op 'n rusbank vertoon. 'N Diensmeisie staan ​​langs haar met 'n groot ruiker blomme. Die voorkoms van die diensmeisies is interessant normaal. Daar is geen gevoel van ongemak om langs 'n naakte vrou te staan ​​wat duidelik naak vir die skildery poseer nie. Dit is van belang, aangesien die samelewing destyds nie so bevry was soos ons dit vandag vind nie.

Die model dra 'n orgidee in haar hare. Daar is 'n swart koord om haar nek, wat haar bleek vel uitlig. 'N Armband en pêreloorringe is haar ander versierings. Sy dra 'n blou vasgemaakte pantoffel aan die een voet, terwyl die ander sorgeloos verwyder word.

Die onderwerp van die onderwerp bedek haar privaat dele, alhoewel haar borste blootgestel is. Daar is geen sweem van ongemaklikheid soos sy in die naak poseer nie. Dit lyk duidelik dat sy haar oppergesag voel oor almal rondom. Die swart kat is simbolies van die vrou se beroep, prostitusie.

In sy styl Manet's Olympia afwyk van die teoretiese standaard. Hy gebruik wye kwashale in plaas van sagte kleurtone wat sy tydgenote gebruik het om naak te skilder. Olympia word steeds as 'n goeie kunswerk gewaardeer.


Olympia - Geskiedenis

Van bokswedstryde sonder gewigsklassifikasies of puntetellings tot strydwaens waar gevaar op elke hoek skuil, dit is maklik om te sien waarom die Antieke Spele die Grieke so lank bekoor het. Hier gee ons u die belangrikste afslag, beklemtoon ons gunsteling feite.

Die Olimpiese Spele was vol bloed, passie en buitengewone atletiese prestasies en was die sport, sosiale en kulturele hoogtepunt van die antieke Griekse kalender vir byna 12 eeue.

Dit is vir ons moeilik om te oordryf hoe belangrik die Olimpiese Spele vir die Grieke was, en Paul Christesen, professor in antieke Griekse geskiedenis aan die Dartmouth College, VSA, het gesê.

Die klassieke voorbeeld is dat toe die Perse Griekeland in die somer van 480 (v.C.) binnegeval het, baie Griekse stadstate ooreengekom het dat hulle 'n geallieerde weermag sou saamstel, maar dit was baie moeilik om een ​​bymekaar te kry omdat soveel mense dit wou gaan na die Olimpiese Spele. Dus, hulle moes eintlik uitstel om die leër saam te stel om die land teen die Perse te verdedig. & Rdquo

Die bedreiging van inval of nie, die Spele het elke vier jaar plaasgevind van 776 vC tot minstens 393 nC. Alle gratis Griekse manne mag deelneem, van landbouers tot koninklike erfgename, hoewel die meerderheid Olimpiërs soldate was. Vroue kon nie meeding of selfs bywoon nie. Daar was egter 'n leemte in hierdie misogynistiese reël, en eienaars van waens, nie ruiters nie, is as Olimpiese kampioene verklaar en almal kan 'n wa besit. Kyniska, dogter van 'n Spartaanse koning, het hiervan gebruik gemaak en beweer oorwinningskranse in 396 en 392 vC.

Die Spele was 'n godsdienstige fees en 'n goeie verskoning vir Grieke uit die hele Middellandse See -kom om bymekaar te kom vir 'n oproerige braai. Op die middelste dag van die fees is 'n groot aantal koeie geslag ter ere van Zeus, die koning van die Griekse gode en nadat hy eers 'n klein voorsmakie gekry het, was die res vir die mense.

Gedurende die eerste 250 jaar het al die aksies plaasgevind in die heiligdom van Olympia, in die noordwestelike Peloponnesos. Dit was 'n uiters bang plek, met olyfbome waaruit die oorwinningskranse gesny is, en met 'n altaar vir Zeus.

Die Spele het teen die vyfde eeu voor Christus 'n volle vyf dae geduur, en daar was hardloop, spring en gooi, asook boks, worstel, pankration en wa -wedrenne. Ten minste 40 000 toeskouers sou die stadion elke dag op die hoogtepunt van die gewildheid van die Spele in die tweede eeu nC volgepak het, met nog baie meer wat hul ware buite verkoop het.


Olympia - Geskiedenis

Mitologie

Die Olimpiese Spele in die Oudheid

Die sportbyeenkomste
Olympia was 'n heilige plek wat gereeld in godsdienstige seremonies gebruik word en was ook gasheer vir die antieke spele, en was die middelpunt van die Griekse beskawing. Die bekende deskundige Paul Christesen gee Olympic.org 'n unieke insig in Olympia en hoe die webwerf verander het namate die Spele groei.

In sy hart was die Antieke Olimpiese Spele 'n godsdienstige fees wat in 'n godsdienstige heiligdom gehou is, en Paul Christesen, professor in antieke Griekse geskiedenis aan die Dartmouth College, VSA, verduidelik.

Soos Christesen verder gesê het, & ldquoit was nie net 'n kwessie van sport nie. En sentraal in hierdie konsep was die webwerf self. Olympia lê op die noordwestelike hoek van die Peloponnesos (tans in die Wes-Griekse streek).

Na bewering het Zeus, die koning van die Griekse gode, omstreeks 1200 vC in Olympia gaan woon toe die Eleans die omliggende gebied verower het. Die vreesaanjaende godheid het sy hemelvaart gekenmerk deur 'n donderbol in die heilige bos te gooi vanaf sy huis bo -op die berg Olympus.

Die stadstaat Elis, waarvan die administratiewe middelpunt ongeveer 'n dag lank en noordelike ritte van Olympia af was, het die Spele gedurende die oorgrote meerderheid van sy lewensiklus uitgevoer, terwyl die Eleans in 572 vC die volle beheer van hul plaaslike mededingers, die Pisatans, oorgeneem het. Ondanks die stadion wat meer as 40 000 mense huisves tydens die hoogtepunt van die gewildheid van die Spele in die tweede eeu nC, was dit altyd 'n diep landelike omgewing.

& ldquoOns weet dat hulle die stadion eintlik met koring geplant het, het Christesen gesê. Dit was 'n groot leë ruimte wat die meeste van die tyd nie gebruik is nie, dus behalwe in die aanloop tot die Spele, was dit net 'n koringland. & rdquo

Vanaf die eerste uitgawe in 776 tot 550 vC het die Spele onder die heiligdom self plaasgevind. Die heilige olyfboom van Zeus, waaruit die oorwinningskranse gesny is, was die eindstreep vir alle rasse. Die eerste stadion, 'n eenvoudige aangeleentheid met behulp van die natuurlike walle van die omliggende heuwels, het ook binne die vergoddelikte gebied gebly. Die ontdekking van meer as 150 putte wat uit hierdie tyd dateer, dui daarop dat hulle selfs vroeg in die lewe van die Olimpiese Spele aansienlike aandag getrek het.

Teen die middel van die vierde eeu vC is die derde inkarnasie van die stadion gebou. Ruim en met die voorkoms en gevoel van 'n meer moderne lokaal, het die bywoning van toeskouers met ongeveer 50%gegroei. Die posisie van die stadion is verskuif, met gebeure wat nie meer by die altaar van Zeus eindig nie.

Die webwerf het egter nie sy godsdienstige sterkte verloor tydens die oorgrote meerderheid van die 1000 jaar plus die Antieke Spele nie, en die diversiteit daarvan was die sleutel tot die voortbestaan ​​daarvan.

Die Grieke was aggressief politeïsties, en Christen het gesê. Alhoewel Olympia 'n heiligdom vir Zeus is, weet ons dat hy nie die enigste god was wat op die terrein aanbid is nie. Daar was meer as 70 verskillende altare, jy kon opoffer aan amper almal wat jy wou. & Rdquo

Terwyl die Eleans 'n permanente teenwoordigheid in Olympia behou en maandelikse offers bring, verander die webwerf vir 'n week per jaar van 'n in wese vreedsame idille in die gekke, oproerige sentrum van Griekeland.

Almal wat 'n groot gehoor van oor die hele Griekse wêreld wou kry, het in Olympia opgedaag. Skilders, kunstenaars en redenaars het almal daarheen gegaan om hul ware ten toon te stel, het Christesen gesê.

Ons weet daar was 'n week totale chaos, want almal wat hul profiel wou verhoog, was die plek en tyd om dit te doen. & rdquo

Die vierde inkarnasie van die stadion het in die eerste eeu plaasgevind, aangesien die gewildheid van die Spele toegeneem het deur die terugkeer van strydwaens na die program in AD17. Rente het in die daaropvolgende eeu 'n hoogtepunt bereik en die vyfde en laaste opknapping het plaasgevind.

Gedurende hierdie reïnkarnasies het die lengte van die baan in die stadion konstant gebly. Daar is baie verhale waarom dit altyd 192,2 m groot was, met die mees betowerende feit dat dit die afstand was wat die held Hercules op 'n enkele asem kon haal.

Behalwe vir kompetisie, het opleiding ook by Olympia plaasgevind. Dit het eers in die buitelug gebeur, maar gedurende die Hellenistiese tydperk (323BC-31BC) is die palestra en die gimnasium gebou. Die belangrikste kenmerk van die palestra & rsquos was 'n groot, vierkantige binnehof. Dit is omring deur kolonnades en het 'n uitgebreide badstelsel in die aangrensende kamers. Die gimnasium was 'n langwerpige reghoek met ruimte vir sowel die spiesgooi as die diskusgooiers om hul ding te doen. Beide geboue was sentrums van intellektuele debat en leer, met filosowe en onderwysers wat voordeel trek uit die skaduwee en oorvloed van jong geeste.

Teen die Romeinse tydperk was hierdie opleidingsfasiliteite saam met die res van die terrein, afgesien van die godsdienstige aspek, 'n toeriste-aantreklikheid die hele jaar deur.

& ldquoMense het groot fyn kunswerke en toewydings opgestel, en dit het 'n beroemde plek geword om Griekse kuns te gaan sien, & rdquo Christesen. & ldquo Sekerlik was daar gedurende die Romeinse tydperk mense wat as gidse op die webwerf bestaan ​​het. & rdquo


Die antieke Olimpiese Spele

Hoe ver terug in die geskiedenis georganiseerde atletiekwedstryde gehou is, bly 'n kwessie van debat, maar dit is redelik seker dat dit byna 3000 jaar gelede in Griekeland plaasgevind het. Hoe oud dit ook al was, aan die einde van die 6de eeu v.C. het ten minste vier Griekse sportfeeste, wat soms 'klassieke speletjies' genoem word, 'n groot belang bereik: die Olimpiese Spele, gehou by Olympia, die Pythiese Spele in Delphi, die Nemese Spele in Nemea en die Istmiese Spele wat naby Korinthe gehou is. Later is soortgelyke feeste in byna 150 stede tot in Rome, Napels, Odessus, Antiochië en Alexandrië gehou.

Van al die spele wat in Griekeland gehou is, was die Olimpiese Spele die bekendste. Elke vier jaar tussen 6 Augustus en 19 September het hulle so 'n belangrike plek in die Griekse geskiedenis beklee dat historici in die laat oudheid die tyd gemeet het aan die interval tussen hulle - 'n Olimpiade. Die Olimpiese Spele was, soos byna alle Griekse spele, 'n intrinsieke deel van 'n godsdienstige fees. Hulle is gehou ter ere van Zeus in Olympia deur die stadstaat Elis in die noordweste van die Peloponnesos. Die eerste Olimpiese kampioen wat in die rekords verskyn het, was Coroebus van Elis, 'n kok, wat die naelloop in 776 v.C. gewen het. Die opvattings dat die Olimpiese Spele baie vroeër as 776 vC begin het, is gebaseer op mite, nie op historiese bewyse nie. Volgens een legende is die Spele byvoorbeeld gestig deur Heracles, die seun van Zeus en Alcmene.


Inhoud

Die Verenigde State het die Olimpiese Somerspele vier keer aangebied: die Spele van 1904 is in St. Louis, Missouri, die Spele van 1932 en 1984 in Los Angeles, Kalifornië, en die Spele van 1996 in Atlanta, Georgia, gehou. Die Spele van 2028 in Los Angeles sal die vyfde geleentheid wees waarop die Somerspele deur die VSA aangebied is

In 2012 het die Verenigde Koninkryk sy derde Olimpiese Somerspele in Londen aangebied, wat die eerste stad geword het wat ooit die Olimpiese Somerspele drie keer aangebied het. Die stede Los Angeles, Parys en Athene het elk twee Olimpiese Somerspele aangebied. In 2024 bied Frankryk sy derde Olimpiese Somerspele in sy hoofstad aan, wat Parys die tweede stad maak wat ooit drie Somerspele gehou het. En in 2028 word Los Angeles op sy beurt die derde stad ooit wat die Spele drie keer aangebied het.

Australië, Frankryk, Duitsland en Griekeland het almal twee keer die Olimpiese Somerspele aangebied. Die IOK het Tokio, Japan, gekies om die Olimpiese Somerspele in 2020 aan te bied, toe dit die eerste stad buite die Westerse wêreld sou wees wat die Olimpiese Spele meer as een keer aangebied het, nadat hulle reeds die Spele in 1964 aangebied het. die Somerspele is België, Brasilië, China, Kanada, Finland, Italië, Mexiko, Nederland, Suid -Korea, Spanje, Sowjetunie en Swede, met elk van hierdie lande wat die Somerspele by slegs een geleentheid aangebied het.

Asië het net drie keer die Olimpiese Spele aangebied: in Tokio (1964), Seoul (1988) en Beijing (2008). As gevolg van die COVID-19-pandemie is die Olimpiese Somerspele 2020 in Tokio, wat die tweede keer was dat die stad aangebied is, tot twaalf maande uitgestel vanaf die oorspronklike geskeduleerde datum. Tokio sal die eerste stad wees buite die oorwegend Engelssprekende en Europese nasies wat gewoonlik die spele aanbied wat twee keer die Olimpiese Spele aangebied het [3], en dit sal ook die grootste stad wees wat ooit aangebied is, sedert 1964 aansienlik gegroei het.

Die Spele van 2016 in Rio de Janeiro, Brasilië, was die eerste Olimpiese Somerspele wat in Suid -Amerika gehou is en die eerste wat heeltemal gedurende die plaaslike "winterseisoen" gehou is. Die enigste twee lande in die Suidelike Halfrond wat die Olimpiese Spele aangebied het, was Australië (1956 en 2000) en Brasilië (2016), en Afrika het nog geen Somerspele gehou nie.

Stockholm, Swede, het tydens twee Olimpiese Somerspele byeenkomste aangebied, as enigste gasheer van die Spele van 1912, en die aanbied van die perdrybyeenkomste tydens die Olimpiese Somerspele 1956 (wat saam met Melbourne, Australië) saam gehou word. [4] Amsterdam, Nederland, was ook gasheer vir byeenkomste by twee Olimpiese Somerspele, nadat hy die enigste gasheer van die Spele van 1928 was en voorheen twee van die seilwedrenne by die Somer Olimpiese Spele in 1920 aangebied het. By die Olimpiese Somerspele 2008 het Hong Kong die plekke gebied vir die perdrygeleenthede, wat in Sha Tin en Kwu Tung plaasgevind het.

Vroeë jare Redigeer

Die Internasionale Olimpiese Komitee is in 1894 gestig toe Pierre de Coubertin, 'n Franse pedagoog en historikus, probeer het om internasionale begrip deur sportkompetisie te bevorder. Die eerste uitgawe van die Olimpiese Spele is in 1896 in Athene gehou en het slegs 245 deelnemers gelok, waarvan meer as 200 Grieks was, en slegs 14 lande verteenwoordig was. Tog was daar nog nooit vantevore internasionale geleenthede van hierdie omvang gereël nie. Vroulike atlete mag nie deelneem nie, alhoewel een vrou, Stamata Revithi, die marathonbaan op haar eie hardloop en sê: "As die komitee my nie toelaat om mee te ding nie, sal ek hulle agterna hou". [5]

Die Somerspele 1896, amptelik bekend as die Spele van die Olimpiade, was 'n internasionale multi-sportbyeenkoms wat van 6 tot 15 April 1896 in Athene, Griekeland, gevier is. Dit was die eerste Olimpiese Spele wat in die Moderne era gehou is. Ongeveer 100 000 mense het die opening van die spele bygewoon. Die atlete kom uit 14 lande, waarvan die meeste uit Griekeland kom. Alhoewel Griekeland die meeste atlete gehad het, eindig die VSA met die meeste kampioene. 11 Amerikaners was eerste in hul byeenkomste teenoor die tien uit Griekeland. [6] Antieke Griekeland was die geboorteplek van die Olimpiese Spele, gevolglik word Athene as 'n geskikte keuse beskou om die eerste moderne Spele op te voer. Dit is eenparig gekies as die gasheerstad tydens 'n kongres wat deur Pierre de Coubertin op 23 Junie 1894 in Parys gereël is. Die IOK is ook tydens hierdie kongres gestig.

Ondanks baie struikelblokke en terugslae, is die Olimpiese Spele van 1896 as 'n groot sukses beskou. Die Spele het tot dusver die grootste internasionale deelname van enige sportbyeenkoms gehad. Panathinaiko -stadion, die eerste groot stadion in die moderne wêreld, het oorgeloop met die grootste skare wat ooit na 'n sportbyeenkoms gekyk het. [7] Die hoogtepunt vir die Grieke was die marathon -oorwinning deur hul landgenoot Spiridon Louis, 'n waterdraer. Hy het binne 2 uur 58 minute en 50 sekondes gewen en wilde feeste in die stadion afgesluit. Die suksesvolste deelnemer was die Duitse stoeier en gimnas Carl Schuhmann, wat vier goue medaljes verower het.

Griekse amptenare en die publiek was entoesiasties oor die ervaring van die aanbied van 'n Olimpiese Spele. Hierdie gevoel is gedeel deur baie van die atlete, wat selfs geëis het dat Athene die permanente Olimpiese gasheerstad moet wees. Die IOC was daarop gemik om daaropvolgende Spele na verskillende gasheerstede regoor die wêreld te draai. Die tweede Olimpiese Spele is in Parys gehou. [8]

Vier jaar later het die Somerspele 1900 in Parys meer as vier keer soveel atlete gelok, waaronder 20 vroue, wat vir die eerste keer amptelik kon deelneem in kroket, gholf, seil en tennis. Die Spele is geïntegreer met die Parys Wêreldtentoonstelling en duur meer as 5 maande. Daar word steeds betwis watter gebeurtenisse presies was Olimpiese, aangesien min of selfs selfs nie een van die geleenthede destyds as sodanig geadverteer is nie.

Spanning wat veroorsaak word deur die Russies-Japannese oorlog en die moeilikheid om na St. Louis te kom, het moontlik daartoe bygedra dat baie min atlete van die hoogste posisie van buite die VSA en Kanada aan die Spele van 1904 deelgeneem het. [9]

'N Reeks kleiner wedstryde is in 1906 in Athene gehou. Die IOK erken hierdie spele tans nie as amptelike Olimpiese Spele nie, alhoewel baie historici dit wel doen. Die Athene -spele in 1906 was die eerste van 'n afwisselende reeks wedstryde wat in Athene gehou is, maar die reeks het nie gerealiseer nie. Die wedstryde was meer suksesvol as die 1900- en 1904 -spele, met meer as 900 atlete wat deelgeneem het, en het positief bygedra tot die sukses van toekomstige wedstryde.

Tydens die Londense Spele in 1908 het die getalle weer gestyg, sowel as die eerste hardloop van die marathon oor die standaard afstand van 42,195 km. Die eerste Olimpiese marathon in 1896 ('n wedloop slegs vir mans) is op 'n afstand van 40 km (24 myl 85 yards) gejaag. Die nuwe marathon -afstand is gekies om te verseker dat die wedloop voor die boks eindig wat deur die Britse koninklike familie beset is. Die marathon was dus 40 km (24,9 mi) vir die eerste wedstryde in 1896, maar is gevolglik met tot 2 km (1,2 mi) gewissel weens plaaslike toestande soos straat- en stadionuitleg. By die ses Olimpiese Spele tussen 1900 en 1920 is die marathon oor ses afstande gejaag. Tydens die Spele het Groot-Brittanje 146 medaljes gewen, 99 meer as Amerikaners wat die tweede plek behaal het, die beste resultaat tot vandag toe.

Aan die einde van die marathon van 1908 was die Italiaanse hardloper Dorando Pietri die eerste wat die stadion binnegekom het, maar hy was duidelik in nood en het uitgeput geraak voordat hy die byeenkoms kon voltooi. Hy is deur bekommerde renbeamptes oor die wenstreep gehelp en is later daarvoor gediskwalifiseer. As vergoeding vir die ontbrekende medalje het koningin Alexandra vir Pietri 'n vergulde silwer beker gegee. Arthur Conan Doyle het 'n spesiale verslag oor die wedloop in die Daaglikse pos. [10]

Die Spele het in 1912 steeds gegroei en 2.504 mededingers na Stockholm gelok, waaronder die groot veelsydige Jim Thorpe, wat beide die tienkamp en vyfkamp gewen het. Thorpe het voorheen 'n paar bofbalwedstryde teen 'n fooi gespeel en het sy medaljes ontneem vir hierdie 'oortreding' van amateurisme na klagtes van Avery Brundage. Hulle is in 1983, 30 jaar ná sy dood, heringestel. Die Spele in Stockholm was die eerste om Pierre de Coubertin se oorspronklike idee te verwesenlik. Vir die eerste keer sedert die Spele in 1896 begin het, was al vyf bewoonde vastelande verteenwoordig met atlete wat in dieselfde stadion deelneem.

Die geskeduleerde Somer -Olimpiese Spele van 1916 is gekanselleer ná die aanvang van die Eerste Wêreldoorlog.

Tussenoorlogse tydperk Wysig

Die 1920-wedstryde in Antwerpen in die oorlogsgeteisterde België was 'n gedempte saak, maar het weer 'n rekordgetal mededingers gelok. Hierdie rekord was slegs tot 1924, toe die Parys -spele 3000 deelnemers betrek het, waarvan die grootste Finse hardloper Paavo Nurmi was. Die "Flying Finn" het drie span goue medaljes en die individuele 1,500 en 5,000 meter lopies gewen, laasgenoemde twee op dieselfde dag. [11]

Die wedstryde in Amsterdam in 1928 was die eerste wedstryde waarmee vroue kon deelneem aan atletiekbaan en het baie baat gevind by die algemene welvaart van die tyd, tesame met die eerste verskyning van borgskap van die wedstryde, van die Coca-Cola Company. Die wedstryde van 1928 het 'n standaardmedalje -ontwerp bekendgestel, met die IOC wat Giuseppe Cassioli se uitbeelding van die Griekse godin Nike gekies het en 'n wenner gedra deur 'n skare mense. Hierdie ontwerp is tot 1972 gebruik. [ aanhaling nodig ]

Die 1932 -wedstryde in Los Angeles is geraak deur die Groot Depressie, wat bygedra het tot die lae aantal mededingers.

Die Berlynse Spele van 1936 word deur die Duitse regering as 'n gulde geleentheid beskou om hul ideologie te bevorder. Die regerende Nazi-party het die filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl opdrag gegee om die speletjies te verfilm. Die resultaat, Olympia, word algemeen beskou as 'n meesterstuk, ondanks die feit dat Hitler se teorieë oor Ariese rasse-meerderwaardigheid herhaaldelik deur "nie-Ariese" atlete opgedaag is. In die besonder het die Afro-Amerikaanse naelloper en verspringer Jesse Owens vier goue medaljes verower. Tydens die Berlynse Spele van 1936 is die Torch Relay ook bekendgestel. [12]

Weens die Tweede Wêreldoorlog is die Spele van 1940 (wat in Tokio gehou sou word en tydelik na die uitbreek van die oorlog na Helsinki verhuis sou word) gekanselleer. Die Spele van 1944 sou in Londen gehou word, maar is ook gekanselleer; Londen het die eerste wedstryde ná die einde van die oorlog in 1948 aangebied.

Na die Tweede Wêreldoorlog Edit

Die eerste na-oorlogse Spele is in 1948 in Londen gehou, met Duitsland sowel as Japan uitgesluit. Die Nederlandse naelloper Fanny Blankers-Koen het vier goue medaljes op die baan gewen, wat Owens se prestasie in Berlyn navolg.

By die Spele van 1952 in Helsinki het die USSR -span vir die eerste keer deelgeneem en onmiddellik een van die oorheersende spanne geword (tweede geëindig in die aantal goue medaljes en algehele medaljes). Sowjet-sukses kan onmiddellik verklaar word deur die koms van die "voltydse amateuratleet" wat deur die staat geborg word. Die USSR het spanne van atlete ingeskryf wat almal nominaal studente, soldate was of in 'n beroep werk, maar waarvan baie in werklikheid deur die staat betaal is om voltyds te oefen, en daarom die amateurreëls oortree. [13] [14] Finland het 'n legende gemaak van 'n vriendelike Tsjeggo-Slowaakse weermagluitenant genaamd Emil Zátopek, wat daarop gemik was om sy enkele goue en silwer medaljes van 1948 te verbeter. die marathon, ten spyte daarvan dat hy nog nooit op daardie afstand gehardloop het nie. Zátopek het homself gestroom deur met die ander leiers te gesels, en het ongeveer halfpad voorgeloop en die oorblywende kanshebbers stadig laat sak om met twee en 'n half minute te wen, en 'n drietal oorwinnings voltooi.

Die Spele in 1956 in Melbourne was grootliks suksesvol en het 'n waterpolo -wedstryd tussen Hongarye en die Sowjetunie uitgesluit, wat die Sowjet -inval in Hongarye tot gevolg gehad het as 'n geveg tussen die spanne. As gevolg van 'n bek-en-klouseer-uitbraak destyds in Brittanje en die streng kwarantynwette van Australië, is die ruiterbyeenkomste in Stockholm gehou.

By die Rome-spele in 1960 kom 'n jong boksbok met die ligte swaargewig genaamd Cassius Clay, later bekend as Muhammad Ali, op die toneel. Ali sou sy goue medalje later in afgryse weggooi nadat hy diens geweier is in 'n restaurant slegs in blankes in sy tuisdorp Louisville, Kentucky. [15] Hy het 'n nuwe medalje ontvang 36 jaar later tydens die Olimpiese Spele van 1996 in Atlanta. Ander kunstenaars in 1960 was Wilma Rudolph, 'n goue medaljewenner op die 100 meter, 200 meter en 4 × 100 meter aflosbyeenkomste.

Die Spele van 1964 wat in Tokio gehou is, is bekend vir die moderne tyd van telekommunikasie. These games were the first to be broadcast worldwide on television, enabled by the recent advent of communication satellites. The 1964 Games were thus a turning point in the global visibility and popularity of the Olympics. Judo debuted as an official sport, and Dutch judoka Anton Geesink created quite a stir when he won the final of the open weight division, defeating Akio Kaminaga in front of his home crowd.

Performances at the 1968 Mexico City games were affected by the altitude of the host city. [16] The 1968 Games also introduced the now-universal Fosbury flop, a technique which won American high jumper Dick Fosbury the gold medal. In the medal award ceremony for the men's 200 meter race, black American athletes Tommie Smith (gold) and John Carlos (bronze) took a stand for civil rights by raising their black-gloved fists and wearing black socks in lieu of shoes. They were banned by the IOC. Věra Čáslavská, in protest to the 1968 Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia and the controversial decision by the judges on the Balance Beam and Floor, turned her head down and away from the Soviet flag whilst the anthem played during the medal ceremony. She returned home as a heroine of the Czechoslovak people but was made an outcast by the Soviet-dominated government.

Politics again intervened at Munich in 1972, with lethal consequences. A Palestinian terrorist group named Black September invaded the Olympic village and broke into the apartment of the Israeli delegation. They killed two Israelis and held 9 others as hostages. The terrorists demanded that Israel release numerous prisoners. When the Israeli government refused their demand, a tense stand-off ensued while negotiations continued. Eventually, the captors, still holding their hostages, were offered safe passage and taken to an airport, where they were ambushed by German security forces. In the firefight that followed, 15 people, including the nine Israeli athletes and five of the terrorists, were killed. After much debate, it was decided that the Games would continue, but proceedings were obviously dominated by these events. [17] Some memorable athletic achievements did occur during these Games, notably the winning of a then-record seven gold medals by United States swimmer Mark Spitz, Lasse Virén (of Finland)'s back-to-back gold in the 5,000 meters and 10,000 meters, and the winning of three gold medals by Soviet gymnastic star Olga Korbut - who achieved a historic backflip off the high bar. Korbut, however, failed to win the all-around, losing to her teammate Ludmilla Tourischeva.

There was no such tragedy in Montreal in 1976, but bad planning and fraud led to the Games' cost far exceeding the budget. The Montreal Games were the most expensive in Olympic history, until the 2014 Winter Olympics, costing over $5 billion (equivalent to $22.03 billion in 2020). For a time, it seemed that the Olympics might no longer be a viable financial proposition. In retrospect, the belief that contractors (suspected of being members of the Montreal Mafia) skimmed large sums of money from all levels of contracts while also profiting from the substitution of cheaper building materials of lesser quality, may have contributed to the delays, poor construction and excessive costs. In 1988, one such contractor, Giuseppe Zappia "was cleared of fraud charges that resulted from his work on Olympic facilities after two key witnesses died before testifying at his trial". [18] There was also a boycott by many African nations to protest against a recent tour of apartheid-run South Africa by the New Zealand national rugby union team. The Romanian gymnast Nadia Comăneci won the women's individual all-around gold medal with two of four possible perfect scores, this giving birth to a gymnastics dynasty in Romania. She also won two other individual events, with two perfect scores in the balance beam and all perfect scores in the uneven bars. Lasse Virén repeated his double gold in the 5,000 meters and 10,000 meters, making him the first athlete to ever win the distance double twice.

End of the 20th century Edit

Following the Soviet Union's 1979 invasion of Afghanistan, 66 nations, including the United States, Canada, West Germany, and Japan, boycotted the 1980 games held in Moscow. Eighty nations were represented at the Moscow Games – the smallest number since 1956. The boycott contributed to the 1980 Games being a less publicised and less competitive affair, which was dominated by the host country.

In 1984 the Soviet Union and 13 Soviet allies reciprocated by boycotting the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Romania, notably, was one of the nations in the Eastern Bloc that did attend the 1984 Olympics. These games were perhaps the first games of a new era to make a profit. Although a boycott led by the Soviet Union depleted the field in certain sports, 140 National Olympic Committees took part, which was a record at the time. [19] The Games were also the first time mainland China (People's Republic) participated.

According to British journalist Andrew Jennings, a KGB colonel stated that the agency's officers had posed as anti-doping authorities from the IOC to undermine doping tests and that Soviet athletes were "rescued with [these] tremendous efforts". [20] On the topic of the 1980 Summer Olympics, a 1989 Australian study said "There is hardly a medal winner at the Moscow Games, certainly not a gold medal winner, who is not on one sort of drug or another: usually several kinds. The Moscow Games might as well have been called the Chemists' Games." [20]

Documents obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Dated prior to the country's decision to boycott the Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the programme, along with suggestions for further enhancements. [21] The communication, directed to the Soviet Union's head of track and field, was prepared by Dr. Sergei Portugalov of the Institute for Physical Culture. Portugalov was also one of the main figures involved in the implementation of the Russian doping programme prior to the 2016 Summer Olympics. [21]

The 1988 games, in Seoul, was very well planned but the games were tainted when many of the athletes, most notably men's 100 metres winner Ben Johnson, failed mandatory drug tests. Despite splendid drug-free performances by many individuals, the number of people who failed screenings for performance-enhancing chemicals overshadowed the games.

The 1992 Barcelona Games featured the admittance of players from one of the North American top leagues, the NBA, exemplified by but not limited to US basketball's "Dream Team". The 1992 games also saw the reintroduction to the Games of several smaller European states which had been incorporated into the Soviet Union since World War II. At these games, gymnast Vitaly Scherbo set an inaugural medal record of five individual gold medals at a Summer Olympics, and equaled the inaugural record set by Eric Heiden at the 1980 Winter Olympics.

By then the process of choosing a location for the Games had become a commercial concern there were widespread allegations of corruption potentially affecting the IOC's decision process.

An the Atlanta 1996 Summer Olympics, the highlight was 200 meters runner Michael Johnson annihilating the world record in front of a home crowd. Canadians savoured Donovan Bailey's recording gold medal run in the 100-meter dash. This was popularly felt to be an appropriate recompense for the previous national disgrace involving Ben Johnson. There were also emotional scenes, such as when Muhammad Ali, clearly affected by Parkinson's disease, lit the Olympic torch and received a replacement medal for the one he had discarded in 1960. The latter event took place in the basketball arena. The atmosphere at the Games was marred, however, when a bomb exploded during the celebration in Centennial Olympic Park. In June 2003, the principal suspect in this bombing, Eric Robert Rudolph, was arrested.

The 2000 Summer Olympics was held in Sydney, Australia, and showcased individual performances by local favorite Ian Thorpe in the pool, Briton Steve Redgrave who won a rowing gold medal in an unprecedented fifth consecutive Olympics, and Cathy Freeman, an Indigenous Australian whose triumph in the 400 meters united a packed stadium. Eric "the Eel" Moussambani, a swimmer from Equatorial Guinea, received wide media coverage when he completed the 100 meter freestyle swim in by far the slowest time in Olympic history. He nevertheless won the heat as both his opponents had been disqualified for false starts. His female compatriot Paula Barila Bolopa also received media attention for her record-slow and struggling but courageous performance. The Sydney Games also saw the first appearance of a joint North and South Korean contingent at the opening ceremonies, though they competed as different countries. Controversy occurred in the Women's Artistic Gymnastics when the vaulting horse was set to the wrong height during the All-Around Competition.

Start of the 21st century and new millennium Edit

In 2004, the Olympic Games returned to their birthplace in Athens, Greece. At least $7.2 billion was spent on the 2004 Games, including $1.5 billion on security. Michael Phelps won his first Olympic medals, tallying six gold and two bronze medals. Pyrros Dimas, winning a bronze medal, became the most decorated weightlifter of all time with four Olympic medals, three gold and one bronze. Although unfounded reports of potential terrorism drove crowds away from the preliminary competitions at the first weekend of the Olympics (14–15 August 2004), attendance picked up as the Games progressed. A third of the tickets failed to sell, [22] but ticket sales still topped figures from the Seoul and Barcelona Olympics (1988 and 1992). [ aanhaling nodig ] IOC President Jacques Rogge characterised Greece's organisation as outstanding and its security precautions as flawless. [23] All 202 NOCs participated at the Athens Games with over 11,000 participants.

The 2008 Summer Olympics was held in Beijing, People's Republic of China. Several new events were held, including the new discipline of BMX for both men and women. Women competed in the steeplechase for the first time. The fencing programme was expanded to include all six events for both men and women previously, women had not been able to compete in team foil or sabre events, although women's team épée and men's team foil were dropped for these Games. Marathon swimming events were added, over the distance of 10 km (6.2 mi). Also, the doubles events in table tennis were replaced by team events. [24] American swimmer Michael Phelps set a record for gold medals at a single Games with eight, and tied the record of most gold medals by a single competitor previously held by both Eric Heiden and Vitaly Scherbo. Another notable star of the Games was Jamaican sprinter Usain Bolt, who became the first male athlete ever to set world records in the finals of both the 100 and 200 metres in the same Games. Equestrian events were held in Hong Kong.

London held the 2012 Summer Olympics, becoming the first city to host the Olympic Games three times. In his closing address, Jacques Rogge described the Games as "Happy and glorious". The host nation won 29 gold medals, the best haul for Great Britain since the 1908 Games in London. The United States returned to the top of the medal table after China dominated in 2008. The IOC had removed baseball and softball from the 2012 programme. The London Games were successful on a commercial level because they were the first in history to completely sell out every ticket, with as many as 1 million applications for 40,000 tickets for both the Opening Ceremony and the 100m Men's Sprint Final. Such was the demand for tickets to all levels of each event that there was controversy over seats being set aside for sponsors and National Delegations which went unused in the early days. A system of reallocation was put in place so the empty seats were filled throughout the Games.

Rio de Janeiro in Brazil hosted the 2016 Summer Olympics, becoming the first South American city to host the Olympics, the second Olympic host city in Latin America, after Mexico City in 1968, as well as the third city in the Southern Hemisphere to host the Olympics after Melbourne, Australia, in 1956 and Sydney, Australia, in 2000. The preparation for these Games was overshadowed by controversies, including the political instability of Brazil's federal government the country's economic crisis health and safety concerns surrounding the Zika virus and significant pollution in the Guanabara Bay and a state-sponsored doping scandal involving Russia, which affected the participation of its athletes in the Games. [25]

The 2020 Summer Olympics were originally scheduled to take place from 24 July to 9 August 2020 in Tokyo, Japan. The city will be the fifth in history to host the Games twice, and the first Asian city to have this title. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Japanese prime minister Shinzo Abe, the IOC and the Tokyo Organizing Committee announced that the 2020 Games were to be delayed until 2021, marking the first time that the Olympic Games have been postponed. [26] [27]

There has been a total of 42 sports, spanning 55 disciplines, included in the Olympic programme at one point or another in the history of the Games. The schedule has comprised 28 sports for three of the most recent Summer Olympics (2004, 2008, and 2016) the 2012 Games featured 26 sports because of the removal of baseball and softball. [28]

The various Olympic Sports federations are grouped under a common umbrella association, called the Association of Summer Olympic International Federations (ASOIF).

Qualification Edit

Qualification rules for each of the Olympic sports are set by the International Sports Federation (IF) that governs that sport's international competition. [29]

For individual sports, competitors typically qualify by attaining a certain place in a major international event or on the IF's ranking list. There is a general rule that a maximum of three individual athletes may represent each nation per competition. National Olympic Committees (NOCs) may enter a limited number of qualified competitors in each event, and the NOC decides which qualified competitors to select as representatives in each event if more have attained the benchmark than can be entered. [29] [30]

Nations most often qualify teams for team sports through continental qualifying tournaments, in which each continental association is given a certain number of spots in the Olympic tournament. Each nation may be represented by no more than one team per competition a team consists of just two people in some sports.

Popularity of Olympic sports Edit

Summer Olympic sports are divided into five categories (A – E) based on popularity, gauged by six criteria: television viewing figures (40%), internet popularity (20%), public surveys (15%), ticket requests (10%), press coverage (10%), and number of national federations (5%). The category of a sport determines the share of Olympic revenue received by that sport's International Federation. [31] [32] Sports that were new to the 2016 Olympics (rugby and golf) have been placed in Category E.

The current categories are:

Kat. Geen. Sport
A 3 athletics, aquatics, [a] gymnastics
B 5 basketball, cycling, football, tennis, volleyball
C 8 archery, badminton, boxing, judo, rowing, shooting, table tennis, weightlifting
D 9 canoe/kayaking, equestrian, fencing, handball, field hockey, sailing, taekwondo, triathlon, wrestling
E 3 modern pentathlon, golf, rugby
F 6 baseball/softball, breaking, karate, skateboarding, sport climbing, surfing

a Aquatics encompasses artistic swimming, diving, swimming, and water polo.


Olympia - History

Édouard Manet. 1863 C.E. Oil on canvas. Realism, movement towards impressionism

Imperfect, harsh style depicting a woman in a manner that does not fit the classical “ideal” and ethereal image of the body

Flatly painted, poorly contoured, abrupt shift in tonality, lacking depth and washed out

No vanishing point or recognizable perspective- hard to understand in space

Loose, choppy brush strokes (clearly a painted representation)

Rebel from previous convention and depict harsh realities of Parisian life

Ordinary people and unglamorous prostitution

Commentary on racial divisions and the class system in Paris

Nude woman reclining on a chaise lounge with a black cat at her feet

She stares with a cold, stark, indifferent expression at the viewer

A black female servant stands behind her holding a bouquet of flowers (a gift for the prostitute from a client)

Highlights the french colonial mindset and injustice in society

the stark contrast of the black skin from the white highlighted racial division

Depicts the world of Parisian prostitution

Depicted marginalized people in society rather than the traditional Bourgeois and aristocratic subjects

This is a salon painting (academic painting) that defied tradition creating an artistic revolution

This received extreme negative reviews from critics in 1865 at the Parisian Salon

It “bewildered” the Parisians and was seen as scandalous and an insult to tradition, caused unease amongst viewers because he shamelessly and obviously depicts a defiant looking prostitute, which unnerved viewers

Both a nude prostitute and a black maid was seen as inferior and animalistic sexuality

Manet mocked the revitalization of classical style by using a contemporary, ordinary subject. He suggested that the classical past no longer had relevance in the modern world.

Manet rejected controlled brush strokes and seamless illusionism

Time of the industrial revolution (linked to the separation from the outdated, classical past)

He recreated the Venus of Urbino but Manet’s creation was believed to be disrespectful and insulting to it

Manet referred to as the father of impressionism, his “rebellious” style inspired future work

Considered the first modernist painter in his technique and subjects

Manet’s realist predecessor was Gustave Courbet and drew inspiration from Velasquez and Goya and Dutch painters

The model was Victorine Meurent

Manet highlighted the injustice of colonial viewpoints, the anxieties of the class system (since many rural people moved to the growing cities), and the uncertainty of the modern world


The History of the Olympic Games

Compare the ancient Olympics to the modern games. Plus, learn how money, politics, and performance-enhancing drugs have become major influences, often causing controversy.

The Olympic Games are an international sports festival that began in ancient Greece. The original Greek games were staged every fourth year for several hundred years, until they were abolished in the early Christian era. The revival of the Olympic Games took place in 1896, and since then they have been staged every fourth year, except during World War I and World War II (1916, 1940, 1944).

Perhaps the basic difference between the ancient and modern Olympics is that the former was the ancient Greeks' way of saluting their gods, whereas the modern Games are a manner of saluting the athletic talents of citizens of all nations. The original Olympics featured competition in music, oratory, and theater performances as well. The modern Games have a more expansive athletic agenda, and for 2 and a half weeks they are supposed to replace the rancor of international conflict with friendly competition. In recent times, however, that lofty ideal has not always been attained.

The Ancient Olympics

The earliest reliable date that recorded history gives for the first Olympics is 776 B.C., although virtually all historians presume that the Games began well before then.

It is certain that during the midsummer of 776 B.C. a festival was held at Olympia on the highly civilized eastern coast of the Peloponnesian peninsula. That festival remained a regularly scheduled event, taking place during the pre-Christian golden age of Greece. As a testimony to the religious nature of the Games (which were held in honor of Zeus, the most important god in the ancient Greek pantheon), all wars would cease during the contests. According to the earliest records, only one athletic event was held in the ancient Olympics &mdash a footrace of about 183 m (200 yd), or the length of the stadium. A cook, Coroibus of Elis, was the first recorded winner. The first few Olympics had only local appeal and were limited to one race on one day only men were allowed to compete or attend. A second race &mdash twice the length of the stadium &mdash was added in the 14th Olympics, and a still longer race was added to the next competition, four years later.

When the powerful, warlike Spartans began to compete, they influenced the agenda. The 18th Olympiad included wrestling and a pentathlon consisting of running, jumping, spear throwing (the javelin), discus throwing, and wrestling. Boxing was added at the 23rd Olympiad, and the Games continued to expand, with the addition of chariot racing and other sports. In the 37th Olympiad (632 B.C.) the format was extended to five days of competition.

The growth of the Games fostered "professionalism" among the competitors, and the Olympic ideals waned as royalty began to compete for personal gain, particularly in the chariot events. Human beings were being glorified as well as the gods many winners erected statues to deify themselves. In A.D. 394 the Games were officially ended by the Roman emperor Theodosius I, who felt that they had pagan connotations.

The Modern Olympics

The revival of the Olympic Games in 1896, unlike the original Games, has a clear, concise history. Pierre de Coubertin (1863&ndash1937), a young French nobleman, felt that he could institute an educational program in France that approximated the ancient Greek notion of a balanced development of mind and body. The Greeks themselves had tried to revive the Olympics by holding local athletic games in Athens during the 1800s, but without lasting success. It was Baron de Coubertin's determination and organizational genius, however, that gave impetus to the modern Olympic movement. In 1892 he addressed a meeting of the Union des Sports Athlétiques in Paris. Despite meager response he persisted, and an international sports congress eventually convened on June 16, 1894. With delegates from Belgium, England, France, Greece, Italy, Russia, Spain, Sweden, and the United States in attendance, he advocated the revival of the Olympic Games. He found ready and unanimous support from the nine countries. De Coubertin had initially planned to hold the Olympic Games in France, but the representatives convinced him that Greece was the appropriate country to host the first modern Olympics. The council did agree that the Olympics would move every four years to other great cities of the world.

Thirteen countries competed at the Athens Games in 1896. Nine sports were on the agenda: cycling, fencing, gymnastics, lawn tennis, shooting, swimming, track and field, weight lifting, and wrestling. The 14-man U.S. team dominated the track and field events, taking first place in 9 of the 12 events. The Games were a success, and a second Olympiad, to be held in France, was scheduled. Olympic Games were held in 1900 and 1904, and by 1908 the number of competitors more than quadrupled the number at Athens &mdash from 311 to 2,082.

Beginning in 1924, a Winter Olympics was included &mdash to be held at a separate cold-weather sports site in the same year as the Summer Games &mdash the first held at Chamonix, France. In 1980 about 1,600 athletes from 38 nations competed at Lake Placid, N.Y., in a program that included Alpine and Nordic skiing, biathlon, ice hockey, figure skating and speed skating, bobsled, and luge.

But the Summer Games, with its wide array of events, are still the focal point of the modern Olympics. Among the standard events are basketball, boxing, canoeing and kayaking, cycling, equestrian arts, fencing, field hockey, gymnastics, modern pentathlon, rowing, shooting, soccer, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, volleyball, water polo, weight lifting, wrestling (freestyle and Greco-Roman), and yachting. New sports are added to the roster at every Olympic Games among the more prominent are baseball, martial arts, and most recently triathlon, which was first contested at the 2000 Games. The Games are governed by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), whose headquarters is in Lausanne, Switzerland.

The Summer and Winter Games were traditionally held in the same year, but because of the increasing size of both Olympics, the Winter Games were shifted to a different schedule after 1992. They were held in Lillehammer, Norway in 1994, in Nagano, Japan in 1998, in Salt Lake City, Utah in 2002, in Turin, Italy in 2006, and in 2010, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.

Politics and the Olympics

The ideology of nationalism, which swept the world during the early 20th century, left its mark on the Olympics. Athletic nationalism was brought to a peak by Nazi Germany, which staged the 1936 Games in Berlin and used the Olympics to propagandize its cause. The Germans built a powerful team through nationalized training and scientific advances and dominated the Games in terms of medals won.

The political overtones of the Olympics did not lessen with the fall of Nazi Germany. In 1956, Egypt, Iraq, and Lebanon boycotted the Melbourne Games to protest the Anglo-French seizure of the Suez Canal, and the Netherlands, Spain, and Switzerland boycotted as well to protest the USSR's invasion of Hungary. In Mexico City in 1968, two African American runners used the victory pedestal to protest U.S. racial policies. In the Munich Olympics in 1972, 11 Israeli athletes were massacred by Palestinian terrorists. And in 1976 in Montreal, 33 African nations, to be represented by about 400 athletes, boycotted the Games to protest South Africa's apartheid policies.

The most serious disruptions to the modern Olympics, however, occurred in 1980 and 1984. In 1980, under strong pressure from the Carter administration, the U.S. Olympic Committee voted to boycott the Summer Games in Moscow to protest the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. About 40 nations followed suit, including West Germany, China, and Japan, depriving the Soviets of their chief athletic competition and raising doubts about the future of the Olympic movement. Although the 1984 Winter Games, in Sarajevo, Yugoslavia, proceeded without boycotts, the Summer Games, in Los Angeles, were undercut by an Eastern-bloc boycott led by the USSR. Fear of an openly hostile environment in Los Angeles was cited by the Soviet Olympic Committee as the reason for nonparticipation, but most commentators believed the reasons to be political: the poor state of recent U.S.-Soviet relations, revenge for the U.S. boycott in 1980, and possible embarrassment to the Soviets on worldwide television caused by planned anti-Soviet demonstrations and defections of Eastern-bloc athletes. The popularity and financial success of the 1984 Los Angeles Games were, however, greater than anticipated.

In 1988 the Winter Games &mdash in Calgary, Alberta, Canada &mdash went on without incident. At the Summer Games, in Seoul, South Korea, only six nations (including Cuba and North Korea) boycotted, and the focus returned to the athletes.The 1992 Winter and Summer Games (in Albertville, France, and Barcelona, Spain, respectively) were the first Olympics without the Eastern-bloc sports machine, were the last for the "Unified Teams" from the former USSR, and marked the return of South Africa to Olympic competition. The 1996 Summer Games, in Atlanta, Ga., were the largest ever they were marred by a bombing that took the lives of two people. The 1994 and 1998 Winter Games transpired without incident. The 2000 Summer Games were held in Sydney, Australia, to great acclaim. In Sydney, politics took a back seat to the competition, although North and South Korea were temporarily reunited as their athletes marched as one country in the opening ceremonies. Athens, Greece &mdash site of the first modern Olympics &mdash was the site of the Summer Games in 2004. Though it has potential for political controversies due to its rapid modernization and its communist state-Beijing, China was selected for the 2008 Summer Games.

Money and the Olympics

The biggest influence on the modern Olympic Games is money. Commercialism exists side by side with the outstanding athleticism and the spirit of friendship imbuing competitors from around the world. Since the 1984 Games in Los Angeles, it has become clear that a city hosting the Games can anticipate a financial windfall, as spectators and sponsors converge for the event. Because of the tremendous potential for profit, the process of selecting host cities has become politicized, and there is a large potential for corruption. In fact, a scandal erupted in late 1998, when it was found that promoters involved with Salt Lake City's (winning) bid for the 2002 Winter Games had bribed IOC members, who were forced to resign the Nagano and Sydney bids were also under suspicion of bribery.

Athletes, too, especially in the "glamour sports" such as gymnastics, ice skating, or track and field, can reap tremendous financial gains for winning performances, through product endorsements and personal appearances. Originally, Olympic athletes were expected to remain strictly amateurs and not earn money even for endorsing products. However, by the last decades of the 20th century, professionalism among competitors received official acceptance, as the IOC finally recognized that many world-class athletes were already functioning as professionals. At the elite level of competition in many Olympic sports, the athlete must devote him- or herself entirely to the sport, all but precluding the holding of a full-time job.

The end of amateurism began in 1960s in the Communist countries, where top athletes were supported by the state, but were officially considered amateurs. To counter this, in the 1970s and 1980s athletes in non-Communist countries sought out corporate sponsors, in effect becoming "employees" of the sponsor. By the late 1980s, restrictions were eased on athletes earning prize money at their sports, and professional athletes were permitted to represent their countries at the Olympics. This now includes the star athletes who play in the American professional leagues, such as the U.S. basketball "Dream Team" of National Basketball Association superstars who dominated the 1992 Olympic competition. In addition, with IOC rules concerning amateurism vacated, many medal-winning contestants have cashed in on their Olympic fame with product endorsements or performance tours.

Performance-Enhancing Drugs

Winning medals at the Olympic Games has always been considered the most prestigious mark of an athlete, and a source of glory for the athlete's country. This has led to the use of performance-enhancing drugs by athletes, intentionally or otherwise, despite the health risks to the athlete and IOC rules prohibiting the use of these substances. The types of drugs banned include stimulants (which can be found in common cold and cough medications caffeine is also banned), narcotics, anabolic steroids, diuretics, certain hormones (such as human growth hormone), and in some sports, beta blockers. The testing of athletes for drug use began for the Olympics in 1968, at the Mexico City Games, but did not become widespread until the 1972 Games. Over the years, as drugs such as human growth hormone have been developed, tests have been added for newer drugs.

With such great rewards at stake, there are athletes and even national sports programs willing to use performance-enhancing drugs despite the risks to future health and the disgrace of getting caught. The best-known example of drug use is the East German sports federation, which had a systematic program for giving its athletes steroids from 1974 to 1989. During that time East German women suddenly dominated events such as swimming, winning medals in 11 of 13 events both in 1976 and 1980. Other swimmers suspected that the East German women were using steroids, because the drugs affected their physical appearance, but the team was never caught. After the reunification of Germany, the East German sports federation's records were opened and the program was exposed. In 2000 the former head of the federation and the doctor who developed and administered the drug plan were convicted of systematic and overall doping. The former athletes maintain that they never knew they were taking steroids, claiming that they were told that the various medications were vitamins. As drug testing procedures have improved, more athletes have been caught. In Seoul there was suspicion of widespread use of performance-enhancing drugs after Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson tested positive he was stripped of his gold medal. In the mid-1990s, China's female swimmers and runners quickly rose to the top of elite competition, arousing suspicions of drug use by the late 1990s many were caught through more diligent drug testing.

The IOC publicly decries the use of performance-enhancing drugs. However, it is commonly believed that even with out-of-competition testing, the drugs and masking agents available to athletes is far ahead of the tests used to detect these substances. A study released in September 2000 that was financed by the U.S. government accused the IOC of permitting drug use to persist in order to maintain the mystique of the Olympics and record-breaking performances. The IOC formed the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in late 1999 to test athletes at the upcoming Olympics and to increase drug testing standards, but how effective WADA will be in the long run is not yet known.

Bibliografie: Finding, John E., and Pelle, Kimberly D., Historical Dictionary of the Modern Olympic Movement (1996) Greenberg, Stan, Guinness Book of Olympic Records (1992) Guttmann, Allen, The Olympics (1992) Henry, Bill, et al., An Approved History of the Olympic Games (1984) Hill, Christopher, Olympic Politics: Athens to Atlanta, 1896&ndash1996, 2de uitg. (1997) Swaddling, Judith, The Ancient Olympic Games, 2de uitg. (2000) Wallechinsky, David, The Complete Book of the Summer Olympics: Sydney 2000 Edition (2000) Young, David C., The Modern Olympics: A Struggle for Revival (1996).


8. Simone Biles Debuts𠅊nd Dazzles

Simone Biles performs her routine during the artistic gymnastics women&aposs individual all-around final event at the 2016 Summer Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, August 11, 2016.